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PRINCETON    .   NEW  JERSEY 
PRESENTED  BY 

Rev.  G.W.  Musgrave,  D.D.,  LL.D. 


BT  738  .C68  1851  ^ 

Colwell,  Stephen,  1800-1871 
New  themes  for  the 
Protestant  clergy 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2010  with  funding  from 

Princeton  Theological  Seminary  Library 


http://www.archive.org/details/newthemesforprotOOcolw 


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PROTESTANT  CLERGY 


CREEDS  WITHOUT  CHARITY, 
THEOLOGY  WITHOUT  HUMANITY, 

AND 

PROTESTANTISM  WITHOUT  CHRISTIANITY; 


IBitlj  Sntrs  liij  \\t  ^\\\n 


ON  THE 


LITERATURE  OP  CHARITY,  POPULATION,  PAUPERISM, 
POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  AND  PROTESTANTISM. 


PHILADELPHIA : 
LIPPINCOTT,  GRAMBO  &  CO. 

No.  14  NORTH  FOURTH  STREET, 

18  51. 


Entered  a(*o/>rding  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1851,  by 

LIPPINCOTT,  GRAMBO  &  CO. 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  in  and  for  the 
Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


Printed  by  T.  K.  &,  P.  G.  Collins. 
Stereotyped  by  I-  Johnson  &  Co.,  Philadoiphin. 


CONTENTS. 


Preface ix 

Editor's  Notice xiii 

Why  has  Christianity  made  so  little  progress? 5 

Christians  responsible — The  law  of  love — Passages  from  the  Gospels — 
Protestantism  and  the  precepts  of  Christ — Religious  literature  •  •  •  5-31 

The   mission  of  Christ  in  his  own  words 31 

Christ's  reply  to  John's  messengers — Other  announcements  of  his 
mission — The  Parable  of  the  last  judgment — Diversity  of  opinions — 
The  Christian  bond  is  love,  not  doctrine 31-47 

The  ministry  and  teaching  of  the  Apostles 47 

Passages  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  from  the  Epistles — The 
import  of  these  teachings — Civilization  and  Christianity — Ecclesiasti- 
cal Machinery — Creeds — Christ  in  his  teaehings  as  well  as  in  his 
offices 47-64 

Charity  among  the  primitive  Christians,  and  thence  to 

THE  Keformation 65 

Slavery — Emancipation — Captives  in  war — Bishop  of  Carthage — Mo- 
nastic system — Hospitals — Emperor  Julian — Constantine  and  Flacilla 
— Laurentius  the  Deacon  and  the  poor — Declension  of  Christianity — 
Power  and  piety  incompatible — Churches  not  proper  almoners — The 
Christian's  field  of  labour — Charity  not  by  proxy — Temptations  of 
church  property — Papal  zeal  for  charity — Its  perversions — Indul- 
gences— First   results  of  the   Pieforraation — Its   strifes — Errors — The 

Scriptures — Protestantism  -  •  • C5-96 

a2  V 


VI  CONTENTS. 


Protestant  errors  and  omissions 96 

)  Judaizing — Burdens  of  men's  devising — Each  man's  faith  his  own — 

I 


■'       Helps  to  a  Christian  life • 96-99 


Thirst  for  power  always  hateful,  still  more  in  matters 

OF  religion 99 

Tendency  to  seek  power — Church  Government — Formalism — Ceremo- 
nies   99-107 

How   THE    GREAT   LAW   OF    ChARITY    HAS    BEEN    CARRIED    OUT 

BY  Protestants 107 

Zeal  for  sound  doctrine — Creeds  of  the  Reformation — Charity  omitted 
—The  Bible 107-114 

The  Benefits  of  the  Reformation  no  reason  for  per- 
petuating ITS  errors 114 

Characteristics    of    Protestantism    developed    in    its 

growth 117 

Freedom  of  mind — Selfishness  increased  in  trade — Morality  of  busi- 
ness— Men  of  the  world  and  money — Their  influence  in  the  churches — 
Business  of  charity — Real  charity  designed  to  promote  the  good  of 
giver  as  well  as  receiver 117-135 

Too  much  reliance  on  learning — the  affections  to  be 

exercised  as  well  as  the  mind 135 

Theology— No  light  without  heat 135-138 

The  Established  Church  of  England — its  abuses  at  the 
Reformation — its  neglect  of  the  poor  and  suf- 
fering   138 

The  spoils  of  the  Catholic  Church — Poor-laws — Poorhouse — Police 
of  poor — Lazarus  and  the  rich  man — Zaccheus — Established  Church 
and  the  poor — English  theory — Malthus 135-153 

The  Spirit  of  Protestantism — English  Protestantism.. 153 

Errors  and  omissions — Social  questions — The  wealth  of  the  Esta- 
blished Church 153-1C3 


CONTENTS.  Vll 


The   duty  of  devising  and  cabrying  into  effect  plans 

FOR    the    general  AMELIORATION  AND  PERMANENT  RE- 
LIEF   OF    THE    SUFFERING    AND    DEGRADED    CLASSES 163 

Labour  mortgaged — Amelioration 163-172 

The  RESPONSIBILITIES  OF  CHRISTIANS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

IN   REGARD    TO    THE    SUFFERING    CLASSES 172 

Religious  feuds— Church-room  for  the  poor— Christendom— Diffusion 
of  the  Scriptures—Interpretation  by  the  world 172-191 

Gradual  declension  of  Christianity  until  it  loses  the 

IMAGE    of    its    origin 191 

Modern  social  institutions — Nc  violent  revolution  needful — Those 
only  can  comprehend  Christianity  who  practise  it 191-202 

The  clergy  of  all  churches — their  mistakes,  difficul- 
ties,   AND    duties    in    REFERENCE    TO    THIS    SUBJECT. ..202 

The  church — Truth  should  free  the  mind — Ministers — The  poor — 
Orthodoxy — Church  discipline — Real  objects  of  the  ministry — Conser- 
vatism— Charity  enlarges  the  mind 202-228 

Further  mistakes  of  the  clergy 228 

Distrust  of  the  Scriptures — Abuse  of  creeds — Theology  for  children 
— Missionaries 228-237 

Topics  for  the  consideration  of  Christian  teachers. ..238 

Maxims  of  the  world — Laws  of  business — Property — Christian  social 
economy 238-245 

Principles  upon  which  reforms,  social   and   religious, 

SHOULD   BE    conducted 245 

Nature,  Providence,  and  Holy  "Writ  must  be  construed  together — 
Ills  of  humanity — Charity — Christian  rule  of  reform — Abuses  of  re- 
form— Christians  should  be  the  avowed  champions  of  the  poor  and 
oppressed— Slavery — Political  reform 245-259 

Infidelity  and  some  of  its  exciting  causes 259 

Conduct  of  Christians— Need  of  exemplification  of  Christianity— In- 


Vm  CONTENTS. 


fidelity  and  Humanity — Christianity  and  the  social  institutions  of  the 
day — Higher  and  lower  classes — Self-righteousness — Stephen  Girard — 
Conservatism  of  power — Triumph  of  truth  and  charity 259-281 


jgnbS;  SJiWingrnpliitEl  nnfi  dprnruL 

The  Literature  of  Charity  in  the  English  language... 283 

No  elaborate  work  on  charity  in  our  language — Christian  Charity 
Explained,  by  John  Angel  James — Extracts  from  it — Mammon,  or  Gove- 
tousness  the  Sin  of  the  Church,  by  the  Rev.  John  Harris — Extracts — 
Three  prize  tracts  of  the  American  Tract  Society 282-289 

Of  the  English  poor-laws,  and  the  literature  to  which 

they  have  given  origin 289 

English  Church  abjured  the  care  of  the  poor — Assumed  by  civil 
authorities — Laws — Literature — History  of  the  Poor-laivs,  by  Richard 
Bum,  LL.  Z>.— Extract 289-290 

A  Catalogue  of  some  English  works  on  the  poor-laws 

and  their  administration 290 

The  Population  Question  and  its  discussions 293 

Malthus  on  Population — List  of  works  on  Population — Importance 
of  this  discussion — Not  placed  on  its  true  basis — No  solution  on  the 
basis  assumed — Dr.  Chalmers  enters  into  the  arena — His  work  on  the 
Christian  and  civic  economy  of  large  towns — Extract — Weyland  en 
Population — Chalmers  and  Malthus — Of  Population,  hy  Wm.  Godwin — 
Malthus  and  Godwin — Extracts  from  Godwin 293-306 

The  Puseyites — another  phase  of  the  controversy 

about  population  and  pauperism 306 

Christian  Politics,  by  Rev.  W.  Sewell — Extracts 306-311 

The  subject  of  humanity  approached  with  timidity  in 
England  from  dread  of  unsettling  the  founda- 
tions   OF    THEIR    SYSTEM 311 

Working  Classes — Political  Economy — Rev.  Vic.  Knox's  works — Ex- 
tract— Principles  of  Political  Economy,  hj  John  Stenart  Mill — Extract — 
Extract  from  P.  Southey's  Essay  on  the  State  of  the  Poor — Barriers  to 


CONTENTS.  ix 


the  progress  of  charity — Conservatism — Foster's  Essays — Extract — 
Hambden  in  the  19tk  Century — Dr.  Chalmers — Extract — The  Philoso- 
phy of  Necessity,  by  Ch.  Bray — Extract — Topics  of  the  work — Outline 
of  Social  Systeins,  by  Ch.  Bray — TJtopists — Remarks  on  Eray — Post  oiit 
blUs  on  heaven — Labouring  Classes  of  England 311-320 

Tkeatment  which   the  subjects  oe  charity,  pauperism, 

and  labour  have  met  in  france 321 

French  legislation  as  to  the  poor  compared  with  English — Difference 
of  administration — French  works  on  the  poor  compared  with  English 
— Feeling  as  to  the  poor  compared  with  that  of  England 321 — 323 

Catalogue  of  French  works  on  Christian  charity, 
public  and  private  charity,  pauperism,  popula- 
tion, and  labour 323-332 

Degerando  ON  Charity:  other  French  works  on  la- 
bour,   THE    POOR,    AND    CHARITY 332 

Classification — Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences — Other  French 
Academies — Prize  questions  on  these  subjects — De  la  Bienfaisance 
PuUique  of  Degerando — Visitor  of  tJie  Poor — Extracts  from  the  intro- 
duction of  the  work  on  Charity — Degerando's  notice  of  Malthus  and  Dr. 
Chalmers — Topics  of  Degerando's  work  stated  in  their  order — History  of 
Charity  during  the  First  Four  Centuries  of  the  Christian  Era,  by  Martin 
Doisy — Extracts — A  Philosophical  History  of  Beneficence,  by  M.  Tail- 
hand — Extracts — Cnarity  in  its  Relations  with  the  Morals  and  tlie  Well- 
being  of  the  Lmver  Classes  of  Society,  by  M.  T.  Duchatd — Extracts — 
Topics — Of  Legal  Charity,  its  Effects  and  causes,  by  the  Rev.  F.  M.  L. 
Naville,  of  Geneva — Extracts — Topics — New  Studies  upon  Cliaritable  Le- 
gislation, by  L.  Lamothe — Extracts — Topics — Conferences  upon  Christian- 
ity in  its  Relation  to  Social  Questions,  by  the  Rev.  Elmond  de  Pressense, 
of  Paris — Extract — Christian  Political  Economy,  by  Villeneuve-Barge- 
mont — Extracts — Topics — Works  on  pauperism,  the  poor,  the  wretched, 
the  dangerous,  &c. — Questions  freely  discussed  in  France — History  of 
the  Working  Classes  and  Towji's  People,  by  A.  G.  de  Cassagnac — Topics 
— History  of  the  Working  Class,  from  the  Slave  to  the  Proletaire  of  our 
Day,  by  Robert  {Du  Far)— Extracts— His  notices  of  Wickliffe,  IIuss, 
and  Luther — The  problem  of  the  reward  of  labour,  how  met  in 
France 332-359 

Socialism 359 

The  necessity  of  observing  the  movement  passing  under  this  name 
— Inquiry  into  its  origin,  and  into  its  infidel  tendencies — The  errors  of 


CONTENTS. 


socialism  do  not  nullify  the  truths  it  supports— A  real  exemplifi- 
cation of  Christianity  the  best  refutation  of  socialist  errors— The 
common  mode  of  opposing  socialism  of  no  avail — Socialism  on  the 
side  of  humanity,  Christians  often  on  the  other  side— Ti-ue  Christianity 
as  it  came  by  Jesus  Christ,  by  Cabet,  author  of  Icaria,  and  leader  of 
the  French  colony  at  Nauvoo 359-365 

Later  indications  in  Great  Britain 365 

North  British  Review — Edinburgh  Review — The  Method  of  the  Divine 
Gmerninent,  Physical  and  Moral,  by  Rev.  James  McCosh — Extracts — 
The  Theory  of  Human  Progression,  and  Natural  P^robability  of  a  Reign 
of  Justice— Extr&ct — Social  Statics,  by  Herbert  /fencer— Topics— Works 
to  be  added  to  list  on  page  292 365-381 

Protestantism 372 

Cbnferences  on  Christianity,  by  Rev.  Ed.  de  JVessense— Extract— 
Battle  oftlxe,  Churches — Westminster  Review — Complacency  of  Protest- 
ants— Pageantry  of  Protestantism — A  beautiful  picture  with  a  dark 
background— The  real  compared  with  the  actual— Abuses  of  privileges 
—Slavery  of  prejudices  and  wrong  training— The  rigid  observers  of 
established  arrangements— Infallibility  not  a  characteristic  of  Pro- 
testantism—The Scriptures  applied  chiefly  to  controversy— Our  literar 
ture,  creeds,  forms,  &c.  came  from  men  of  strife — Our  religious  educa- 
tion from  that  mint— Jews,  Catholics,  Protestants,  all  overlaid  the 
truth  with  their  own  inventions— (S/wr/er  Catechism — Not  proper  for 
children 372-380 

A  CASE  SUPPOSED  UPON  THE  SUBJECT  OF  THE  VARIOUS  IN- 
TERPRETATIONS OF  THE  Bible 380 


PREFACE. 


In  offering  the  following  pages  to  the  public,  we  fur- 
nish no  formal  or  complete  treatise  upon  any  of  the  topics 
embraced.  We  have  reflected  long  and  earnestly  upon 
them,  as  they  arose  incessantly  in  the  course  of  kindred 
studies,  until  we  became  painfully  convinced  that  they 
were  neglected,  and  that  the  time  had  arrived  when  the ' 
public  attention  should  be  specially  invoked.  This  labour 
is  devoted  to  that  purpose.  We  have  poured  forth  our 
feelings,  and,  with  scarcely  a  pretence  of  method,  sketched 
an  outline  of  our  thoughts.  We  would  thus  provoke  others 
to  more  elaborate  performances.  If  this  work  is  unworthy 
of  the  subject,  let  its  imperfections  stimulate  those  of 
more  leisure,  better  training,  and  greater  ability  to  under- 
take the  task  we  have  only  indicated.  We  ask  attention 
to  the  suhjectj  as  of  sufficient  interest  and  novelty  to  arrest 
the  thoughts  of  the  reader,  despite  all  our  deficiencies : 
let  no  one,  therefore,  who  desires  the  progress  of  Christi- 
anity or  the  promotion  of  humanity  refuse  to  hear  the 
feeblest  voice  which  is  raised  in  their  behalf. 

Let  it  not  be  thought  that,  whilst  dwelling  so  em- 
phatically upon  Charity,  we  have  violated  its  dictates  by 
undue  severity  of  remark.  We  have  intended  no  cen- 
sures upon  individuals,  even  when  severe  upon  the  class 
to  which  they  belong.     We  regard  the  faults  of  indi- 

xi 


XU  PREFACE. 


viduals;  whether  priests,  clergy,  ministers,  or  laymen, 
as  being  the  faults  of  their  age  or  their  station,  or  as 
the  results  of  education  or  training, — circumstances  all 
beyond  their  control  j  and  whilst  we  do  not  abate  a  jot 
from  the  responsibility  which  belongs  to  wrong-doing,  we 
admit,  human  nature  being  ever  prone  to  err,  that  men 
placed  in  similar  circumstances  will  be  likely  to  trans- 
gress in  similar  paths.  We  believe  there  are  few  in- 
stances in  which  one  class  of  men  can,  in  the  sight  of 
God,  glory  over  others' :  if  any  are  better,  they  have  more 
light  and  better  opportunities,  and  will  be  held  to  a 
stricter  account.  Many  of  our  expressions  doubtless  re- 
quire qualification,  but  we  trust  that  the  reader  who  is 
earnestly  in  quest  of  truth  will  readily  perceive  our  scope, 
and  follow  the  channel  of  our  thoughts  until  he  is  fully 
embarked  in  the  subject;  he  will  then  perceive  there  is 
"  ample  room  and  verge  enough"  for  the  mind,  without 
aiming  censure  at  any  one.  We  denounce  none  :  we  ask 
the  serious  consideration  and  co-operation  of  all.  We 
/  insist  that  Protestants  have  long  overlooked  and  neglected 
I  charity — that  it  has  not  been,  and  is  not,  a  feature  in 
their  creeds:  that,  while  Protestantism  has  gone  far 
before  the  world  in  liberality,  it  is  almost  a  stranger  to 
that  charity  which  the  Author  of  our  faith  preached  and 
exemplified.  We  plead  the  cause  of  the  poor,  the  sufier- 
ing,  the  friendless,  before  those  who  claim  pre-eminence 
in  Christianity:  we  ask  whether,  as  Protestants,  enjoying 
the  highest  Christian  privileges  which  have  fallen  to  the 
lot  of  men,  we  have,  in  the  matter  of  human  welfare, 
done  that  which  it  was  our  duty  to  do  ?  We  may  not  post- 
pone this  inquiry  without  suffering  in  ]3ublic  estimation 
and  in  our  ability  to  do  good ; — we  cannot  postpone  it 


PREFACE.  Xlll 


without  danger  of  being  put  on  our  defence  as  recreant 

to  the  cause  of  humanity.       The    world    now    believes 

that  the  religion,  announced  by  the  Author  and  Finisher 

of  our  faith,  embraces  humanity  as  well  as  divinity 

in  its  range.     We  must  meet  the  great  questions  now 

raised  in  behalf  of  humanity,  and  not  be  overtaken  by 

them.     Let  us  unite  in  the  effort  to  adjust  the  claims  of 

charity  and  justice ;  and  let  us  not  wait  until  they  are 

settled  without  our  aid  or  our  consent — we  being  thrust 

aside  as  unworthy  a  voice  in  the  matter.     Human  weal 

and  human  wo  cannot  as  subjects  be  postponed.      The 

duties  we  owe  to  our  fellow-men,  long  passed  by  in  the 

G-ospels,   are   being   brought  to  light.      Theology  must  j 

soon  sink  to  its   subordinate  position,  and  charity — the/ 

law  of  kindness — must  soon  be  exalted  to  its  proper  rank.t 

The  value  of  kindness,  as  a  remedy  for  the  ills  of  life, 

is  beginning  to  be  appreciated.     It  is  now  the  established 

specific  for  insanity  :  it  is  the  only  mitigation  of  madness. 

Where  a  spark  of  reason  is  left  to  the  raving  maniac, 

though  invisible  to  every  other  human  eye,  it  is  fanned 

into  life,  and  soon  perceived  by  the  messenger  of  mercy. 

It  is  but  a  few  years  since  the  most  atrocious  cruelties 

were  perpetrated  by  good  people  against  those  bereft  of 

reason.    The  age  of  cruelty  is  giving  way  to  that  of  mercy. 

Kindness  is  known  to  be  a  specific  for  many  forms  of 

disease,  and  kind  nursing  for  many  more.     Christ's  whole 

ministry  was  one  of  personal  kindness.     Charity  is  the*^ 

great  lever  of  Christianity :  by  it  the  messengers  of  the 

gospel  can  open  the  eyes  of  pagan  blindness  :  by  it  the 

ears  of  the  most  obstinate  and  hardened  can  be  unstopped  : 

by  it  reason  can  be  restored  and  life  saved :  by  it  every 

human  ill  can  be  alleviated :  by  it  all  obstacles  to  the  pro- 

1 


XIV  PREFACE. 


gress  of  Christianity  can  be  removed  or  diminislied.  Men 
are  selfish,  unfeeling,  and  prone  to  the  abuse  of  power  and 
wealth;  yet,  where  charity  appears  in  her  simplest  garb, 
she  is  hailed  as  a  heavenly  visitant,  and  the  message 
which  accompanies  her  deeds  of  kindness  is  received  as 
the  voice  of  Heaven. 

It  is  time  the  virtue  of  this  remedy  were  tried  in  the 
name  of  Christianity  upon  the  whole  mass  of  humanity  : 
try  it  upon  the  poor,  upon  paupers,  upon  prisoners,  sol- 
diers, sailors,  servants,  labourers;  try  it  upon  infidels, 
socialists,  reforming  zealots,  revolutionists;  try  it  upon 
all  men — and  the  result  will  be  happy  beyond  all  our 
present  conceptions. 


BY  THE  EDITOR, 


Let  no  one  cast  aside  this  little  volume,  as  the  work 
of  a  crude  and  unfurnished  mind ;  or  as  the  product  of  a 
captious  grumbler,  ignorant  of  the  theology  he  underrates 
and  incapable  of  grasping  his  subject;  or  as  the  sickly 
dreams  of  a  diseased  imagination.  If  any  are  so  dead  to 
the  interests  of  humanity  as  to  be  insensible  to  the  con- 
siderations here  presented,  it  is  time  they  were  awakened ; 
if  any  are  alive  to  them,  but  inactive,  it  is  time  they 
were  put  on  the  alert.  Few,  it  is  hoped,  can  follow 
the  train  of  reflection  here  suggested,  without  experi- 
encing a  feeling  that  there  is  a  lamentable  omission  in 
our  Protestantism,  and  without  a  desire  to  understand 
the  subject  better.  It  will  be  found  there  is  a  wide 
range  for  the  mind  in  the  topics  here  touched,  and  that  a 
reformation  remains  to  be  effected  greater  than  any  yet 
conceived. 

"VYe  have  added  to  the  text  extended  bibliographical 
notices  and  catalogues,  in  the  hope  of  tempting  the 
studious  and  humane  into  this  field  of  research,  and  of 
facilitating  the  labours  of  those  who  may  be  willing  to 
devote  their  thoughts  to  the  service  of  humanity. 

October  20th;  1S51. 

XV 


WHY  HAS  CHRISTIANITY  MADE 
SO  LITTLE  PROGRESS? 


"What  impedes  the  progress  of  Christianity  ? 

4 

This  inquiry  must  very  often  arise  in  the 
mind  of  every  thoughtful  Christian,  and  no 
one  can  over-estimate  the  importance  of  a 
right  answer.  Apart  from  its  Divine  origin, 
and  its  vital  personal  consequence  to  every 
human  being,  the  triumphs  of  Christianity 
over  all  other  religious  systems  assert  its 
claims  to  the  support  of  all  lovers  of  order,  of 
civilization,  of  industry,  of  art,  of  science,  of 
literature  and  social  well-being.  Its  triumphs 
are,  however,  thus  far,  greater  in  kind  than 
in  extent.  The  Christian  world  is  distin- 
guished immeasurably  above  all  the  rest  in  all 
these  respects;  but  the  Mohammedan  and 
Pagan  world  yet  greatly  exceeds  it  in  extent 

1-=^  5 


6  THE   SMALL   NUMBER    OF    CHRISTIANS. 


and  population.  Eighteen  centuries  have 
been  sufficient  to  estabhsh  Christianity  over 
but  a  small  portion  of  the  earth ;  and  even 
many  of  the  conquests  once  made  are  now 
lost!  Both  Mohammedism  and  Paganism 
prevail  now  where  Christians  once  dwelt.  If 
the  question  were  only — Why  are  not  the  ad- 
vantages of  Europe  and  America  extended  to 
Asia  and  Africa  ? — it  would  be  of  unspeakable 
importance  to  find  a  solution  :  but  the  solution 
is  of  infinitely  more  importance  than  this 
would  imply.  How  many  in  Christian  lands 
are  really  Christians?  Less,  perhaps^  than  a 
tenth,  or  a  fourth,  or  a  third.  The  inquiry 
then  arises, — What  restricts  Christianity  to 
this  small  proportion?  How  comes  it,  that 
among  the  enlightened,  upon  whom  the  truths 
of  the  Gospel  are  urged  from  God's  own  word, 
where  eternal  blessedness  is  placed  in  the  al- 
ternative with  eternal  misery,  so  few  make 
their  election  to  be  on  the  safe  side  ? — What- 
ever circumlocution  may  be  indulged  on  this 
"^  suljject,  the  plain  truth  is,  tliat  men  who  neg- 


BELIEVERS    OR    UNBELIEVERS. 


lect  to  seek  eternal  happinesS;  do  not  believe 
the  message  of  the  Gospel.  There  is  not  a 
sane  man  in  existence,  who,  if  he  believed 
that  an  eternal  existence  of  happiness  or 
misery  awaited  him,  as  he  made  his  peace 
with  God  or  not  in  this  world,  that  would 
lose  one  moment  in  turning  his  face  heaven- 
ward. They  do  not  believe  in  Christ  who  do 
not  seek  his  favour.  It  is  a  vain  waste  of 
words  to  distinguish  between  the  tenets  of 
him  who  openly  denies  the  message  of  God 
to  men,  and  of  him  who  constantly  refuses 
submission  to  his  will.  The  one  but  denies 
by  words  what  the  other  denies  as  fully  by 
his  acts,  whatever  may  be  his  words.  The 
people  of  Christendom  are,  therefore,  properly 
classified  into  believers  and  unbelievers. 

But  why  this  appalling  disproportion  under 
the  full  light  of  the  truth  ?  The  fault  cannot 
be  with  Him  who  offers  this  grand  alterna- 
tive. No  doubt  every  individual  must  answer 
for  himself  to  God,  and  each  must  bear  the 
penalty  of  his  own  impenitence  and  unbelief; 


8  THE    CAUSES. 


yet  it  is  certain  that,  in  the  order  of  Provi- 
dence, human  means  are  employed  in  the 
propagation  of  Christianity.  Why  then  are 
the  means  so  ineffective  ?  How  much  of  this 
reproach  belongs  to  the  professed  followers 
of  Christ,  to  whom  the  duty  of  proclaiming 
the  truth  is  committed?  Do  they  suppose 
they  have  discharged  their  whole  duty  in  this 
respect  ?  Are  their  skirts  clear  of  the  blood 
of  those  who  are  perishing  by  millions  ?  No 
inquiry  can  be  so  important  to  Christians  as 
/  that,  whether,  next  to  their  own  salvation, 
they  have  done  what  they  could  for  the  sal- 
vation of  others.  It  is  the  work  of  Christians — 
all  the  means  are  committed  to  them. 

It  is  true  that  men  are,  by  nature,  blind 
to  their  eternal  interests,  and  unwilling  to 
obey,  or  even  hear,  the  truth :  but  the  power 
of  the  truth  is  sufficient  to  subdue  the  most 
obdurate ;  and  God  is  always  ready  to  bless 
every  proper  effort.  Where,  then,  lies  the 
difficulty — the  obstacle — the  barrier  to  the 
progress  of  Christianity  ?    There  can  be  only 


THE    RESPONSIBILITY.  9 


one  reply — that^  aside  from  the  accountability 
of  each  individual  for  himself^  the  responsi- 
bihty  for  the  slow  progress  of  Christianity 
lies  at  the  door  of  those  who  profess  to  be  the 
friends  of  Christ. 

It  may  not  be  easy  to  say,  in  what  precise 
manner  they  are  liable  to  this  heavy  charge ; 
but  it  is  clear  that  it  lies  nowhere  else,  and 
that  they  are  bound  to  examine  themselves 
and  see  what  it  is  they  have  done,  or  what 
they  have  left  undone,  which  subjects  them 
to  the  accusation  of  obstructing  the  progress 
of  their  Master's  cause. 

We  propose  to  enter  a  little  upon  this  ex- 
amination, not  with  the  hardihood  of  expect- 
ing to  offer  any  solution  of  the  difficulty,  but 
merely  to  make  a  few  suggestions — to  mark 
out  a  line  of  thought,  which,  followed  u^  by 
others  more  capable,  may  lead  to  profitable 
results. 

What,  then,  is  the  mission  upon  which 
Christ  came  into  this  world,  and  which,  upon 
leaving  it,  he  committed  to  his  followers  ? — 


i/^ 


10  MISSION   OF   CHRIST. 


To  state  this  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter  into 
a  history  of  the  Jews^  nor  even  to  notice  the 
prophecies  which  heralded  his  approach.  The 
mission  of  Christ  is  explicit  and  intelligible. 
He  came  to  redeem  the  perishing;  to  offer 
terms  of  reconciliation  to  rebels  ;  to  ac- 
complish a  sacrifice,  being  himself  the  victim, 
and  thus  to  become  a  Saviour  through  whom 
all  that  believe  should  inherit  eternal  life. 
He  came  to  fulfil  and  satisfy  the  law  which 
men  had  not  kept,  that  no  jot  or  tittle  might 
pass  unfulfilled ;  he  came  in  the  fulness  of  time 
with  a  new  dispensation  of  mercy,  and  a  new 
commandment,  comprehending  all  the  moral 
obligations  of  the  old  law,  and  embracing,  in 
a  few  words,  every  duty  of  man  to  God,  and 
to  his  fellow  man — "Thou  shalt  love  the 
Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart,  and  all  thy 
soul,  and  with  all  thy  strength,  and  with  all 
thy  mind;  and  thy  neighbour  as  thyself."* 
This  is  the  sum  of  human  duty ;  this  is  the 

*  Luke  X.  27. 


SCOPE    OF    CHRISTIANITY.  H 


law  which  Christ  has  given  us ;  this  lnw^  re- 
ceived from  him^  is  Christianity.  Its  com- 
prehensiveness  and  purity  proclaim  its  divine 
origin.  No  such  law,  nor  such  doctrine,  nor 
such  philosophy  ever  fell  from,  mere  human 
lips  or  human  pen.  No  other  rehgion  em- 
braces such  requirements.  The  expositions 
of  this  law,  given  by  Christ  in  the  course  of 
his  ministry,  leave  no  doubt  of  its  comprehen- 
siveness and  the  nature  of  its  application — 
of  its  stringency,  and  its  searching  obligation. 
"  A  neio  commandment  I  give  unto  you.  That 
ye  love  one  another ;  as  I  have  loved  you,  that 
you  love  one  another."  He  frequently  em- 
ploys the  terms  "my  commandment,"  show- 
ing that  there  is  something  special  and  pecu- 
liar in  the  precepts  thus  announced. 

For  the  sake  of  distinctness  and  convenient 
reference,  we  here  place  in  conjunction  some 
of  the  more  special  teachings  of  Christ  on  the 
subject  to  which  we  desire  more  especially  to 
draw  the  attention  of  the  reader. 


12  SPECIAL   TEACHINGS   OF    CHRIST. 


And  he  opened  liis  mouth,  and  taught  them,  saying, 
Blessed  are  the  poor  in-  spirit :  for  theirs  is  the  king- 
dom of  heaven.  Blessed  are  they  tlj^t  mourn :  for  they 
shall  be  comforted.  Blessed  are  the  meek :  for  they  shall 
inherit  the  earth.  Blessed  are  they  which  do  hunger  and 
thirst  after  righteousness :  for  they  shall  be  filled.  Blessed 
are  the  merciful :  for  they  shall  obtain  mercy.  Blessed 
are  the  pure  in  heart :  for  they  shall  see  God.  Blessed 
are  the  peace-makers  :  for  they  shall  be  called  the  children 
of  God.  Blessed  are  they  which  are  persecuted  for 
righteousness'  sake :  for  theirs  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 
Blessed  are  ye  when  men  shall  revile  you,  and  persecute 
you,  and  shall  say  all  manner  of  evil  against  you  falsely, 
for  my  sake. — Matt.  v.  2 — 11. 

Ye  have  heard  that  it  was  said  by  them  of  old  time. 
Thou  shalt  not  kill ;  and  whosoever  shall  kill,  shall  be  in 
danger  of  the  judgment ;  but  I  say  unto  you.  That  who- 
soever is  angry  with  his  brother  without  a  cause,  shall  be 
in  danger  of  the  judgment :  and  whosoever  shall  say  to 
his  brother,  Baca,  shall  be  in  danger  of  the  council :  but 
whosoever  shall  say.  Thou  fool,  shall  be  in  danger  of  hell- 
fire.  Therefore,  if  thou  bring  thy  gift  to  the  altar,  and 
there  rememberest  that  thy  brother  hath  aught  against 
thee,  leave  there  thy  gift  before  the  altar,  and  go  thy  way; 
first  be  reconciled  to  thy  brother,  and  then  come  and  ofier 
thy  gift.— J/c<«.  V.  21—24. 

0 

Ye  have  heard  that  it  hath  been  said,  An  eye  for  an 
eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth.  But  I  say  unto  you.  That 
ye  resist  not  evil :  but  whosoever  shall  smite  thee  on  thy 


SPECIAL   TEACHINGS    OF   CHRIST.  13 


right  cheek,  turn  to  him  the  other  also.  And  if  any  man 
will  sue  thee  at  the  law,  and  take  away  thy  coat,  let  him 
have  thy  cloak  also.  And  whosoever  shall  compel  thee  to 
go  a  mile,  go  with  him  twain.  Give  to  him  that  asketh 
thee,  and  from  him  that  would  borrow  of  thee  turn  not 
thou  aWay. 

Ye  have  heard  that  it  hath  been  said.  Thou  shalt  love 
thy  neighbour,  and  hate  thine  enemy :  but  I  say  unto 
you,  Love  your  enemies,  bless  them  that  curse  you,  do 
good  to  them  that  hate  you,  and  pray  for  them  which 
despitefully  use  you  and  persecute  you ;  that  ye  may  be 
the  children  of  your  Father  which  is  in  heaven  :  for  he 
maketh  his  sun  to  rise  on  the  evil  and  on  the  good,  and 
sendeth  rain  on  the  just  and  on  the  unjust.  For  if  ye 
love  them  which  love  you,  what  reward  have  ye?  do  not 
even  the  publicans  the  same  ? — 3Iatt.  v.  38 — 46. 

Take  heed  that  ye  do  not  your  alms  before  men,  to  be 
seen  of  them  :  otherwise  ye  have  no  reward  of  your  Father 
which  is  in  heaven.  Therefore,  when  thou  doest  thine 
alms,  do  not  sound  a  trumpet  before  thee,  as  the  hypo- 
crites do,  in  the  synagogues,  and  in  the  streets,  that  they 
may  have  glory  of  men.  Verily  I  say  unto  you.  They 
have  their  reward.  But  when  thou  doest  alms,  let  not 
thy  left  hand  know  what  thy  right  hand  doeth ;  that 
thine  alms  may  be  in  secret :  and  thy  Father  which 
seeth  in  secret,  himself  shall  reward  thee  openly. — Matt. 
vi.  1—4. 

And  forgive  us  our  debts,  as  we  forgive  our  debtors. — 
Matt.  vi.  12. 

2 


14  SPECIAL   TEACHINGS    OF   CHRIST. 


For  if  ye  forgive  men  their  trespasses,  your  heavenly 
Father  will  also  forgive  you :  but  if  ye  forgive  not  men 
their  trespasses,  neither  will  your  Father  forgive  your 
trespasses. — 3Iatt.  vi.  14,  15. 

Lay  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures  upon  earth,  where 
moth  and  rust  doth  corrupt,  and  where  thieves  break 
through  and  steal :  but  lay  up  for  yourselves  treasures  in 
heaven,  where  neither  moth  nor  rust  doth  corruupt,  and 
where  thieves  do  not  break  through  nor  steal.  For  where 
your  treasure  is,  there  will  your  heart  be  also. — Matt.  vi. 
19—21. 

Therefore  I  say  unto  you,  Take  no  thought  for  your 
life,  what  ye  shall  eat,  or  what  ye  shall  drink ;  nor  yet 
for  your  body,  what  ye  shall  put  on.  Is  not  the  life  more 
than  meat,  and  the  body  than  raiment?  Behold  the 
fowls  of  the  air;  for  they  sow  not,  neither  do  they  reap, 
nor  gather  into  barns ;  yet  your  heavenly  Father  feedeth 
them.  Are  ye  not  much  better  than  they  ?  Which  of 
you  by  taking  thought  can  add  one  cubit  unto  his  stature  ? 
And  why  take  ^q  thought  for  raiment  ?  Consider  the 
lilies  of  the  field  how  they  grow ;  they  toil  not,  neither 
do  they  spin ;  and  yet  I  say  unto  you,  That  even  Solo- 
mon in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these. 
Wherefore,  if  God  so  clothe  the  grass  of  the  field,  which 
to-day  is,  and  to-morrow  is  cast  into  the  oven,  shall  he  not 
much  more  clothe  you,  0  ye  of  little  faith  ?  Therefore 
take  no  thought,  saying.  What  shall  we  eat  ?  or.  What 
shall  we  drink  ?  or.  Wherewithal  shall  we  be  clothed  ? 
(For  after  all  these  things  do  the  Gentiles  seek :)  for  your 


SPECIAL   TEACHINGS   OF   CHRIST.  15 


heavenly  Father  knoweth  that  ye  have  need  of  all  these 
things.  But  seek  ye  first  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  his 
righteousness,  and  all  these  things  shall  be  added  unto 
you.  Take  therefore  no  thought  for  the  morrow :  for 
the  morrow  shall  take  thought  for  the  things  of  itself. 
Sufficient  unto  the  day  is  the  evil  thereof. — Matt.  vi. 
25—34. 

Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged.  For  with  what  judg- 
ment ye  judge,  ye  shall  be  judged :  and  with  what  mea- 
sure ye  mete,  it  shall  be  measured  to  you  again.  And 
why  beholdest  thou  the  mote  that  is  in  thy  brother's  03^0, 
but  considerest  not  the  beam  that  is  in  thine  own  eye  ? 
Or  how  wilt  thou  say  to  thy  brother,  Let  me  pull  out  the 
mote  out  of  thine  eye ;  and  behold,  a  beam  is  in  thine  own 
eye  ?  Thou  hypocrite,  first  cast  out  the  beam  out  of  thine 
own  eye ;  and  then  shalt  thou  see  clearly  to  cast  out  the 
mote  out  of  thy  brother's  eye. 

Give  not  that  which  is  holy  unto  the  dogs,  neither  cast 
ye  your  pearls  before  swine,  lest  they  trample  them  under 
their  feet,  and  turn  again  and  rend  you. 

Ask,  and  it  shall  be  given  you ;  seek,  and  ye  shall  find  ; 
knock,  and  it  shall  be  opened  unto  you :  for  every  one  that 
asketh,  receiveth ;  and  he  that  seeketh,  findeth ;  and  to 
him  that  knocketh,  it  shall  be  opened.  Or  what  man  is 
there  of  you,  whom  if  his  son  ask  bread,  will  he  give  him 
a  stone  ?  Or  if  he  ask  a  fish,  will  he  give  hira  a  serpent  ? 
If  ye  then  being  evil  know  how  to  give  good  gifts  unto 
your  children,  how  much  more  shall  your  Father  which 
is  in  heaven  give  good  things  to  them  that  ask  him  ? 
Therefore  all  things  whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should 


1-6  SPECIAL    TEACHINGS    OF  CHRIST. 


do  to  you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them  :  for  this  is  the  law  and 
the  prophets. — Matt.  vii.  1 — 12. 

Not  every  one  that  saith  unto  me,  Lord,  Lord,  shall 
enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven ;  but  he  that  doeth  the 
will  of  my  Father  which  is  in  heaven.  Many  will  say  to 
me  in  that  day.  Lord,  Lord,  have  we  not  prophesied  in 
thy  name  ?  and  in  thy  name  have  cast  out  devils  ?  and  in 
thy  name  done  many  wonderful  works  ?  And  then  will  I 
profess  unto  them,  I' never  knew  you :  depart  from  me, 
ye  that  work  iniquity. — Matt.  vii.  21 — 23. 

And  when  he  had  called  unto  him  his  twelve  disciples, 
he  gave  them  power  against  unclean  spirits,  to  cast  them 
out,  and  to  heal  all  manner  of  sickness,  and  all  manner 
of  disease. — Matt.  x.  1. 

And  as  ye  go,  preach,  saying,  The  kingdom  of  heaven 
is  at  hand.  Heal  the  sick,  cleanse  the  lepers,  raise  the 
dead,  cast  out  devils  :  freely  ye  have  received,  freely  give. 
Provide  neither  gold,  nor  silver,  nor  brass  in  your  purses ; 
nor  scrip  for  your  journey,  neither  two  coats,  neithc-r 
shoes,  nor  yet  staves  :  (for  the  workman  is  worthy  of  his 
meat.)  And  into  whatsoever  city  or  town  ye  shall  enter, 
inquire  who  in  it  is  worthy;  and  there  abide  till  ye  go 
thence.  And  when  ye  come  into  a  house,  salute  it.  And 
if  the  house  be  worthy,  let  your  peace  come  upon  it :  but 
if  it  be  not  worthy,  let  your  peace  return  to  you. — Matt. 
X.  7—13. 

And  whosoever  shall  give  to  drink  unto  one  of  these 
little  ones,  a  cup  of  cold  water  only,  in  the  name  of  a  dis- 


SPECIAL   TEACHINGS   OF   CHRIST.  17 


ciple,  verily  I  say  unto  you,  he  shall  in  no  wise  lose  his 
reward. — 3Iatt.  x.  42. 

And  Jesus  called  a  little  child  unto  him,  and  set  him 
in  the  midst  of  them,  and  said.  Verily  I  say  unto  you, 
Except  ye  be  converted,  and  become  as  little  children,  ye 
shall  not  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  Whosoever 
therefore  shall  humble  himself  as  this  little  child,  the  same 
is  greatest  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  And  whoso  shall 
receive  one  such  little  child  in  my  name,  receiveth  me. 
But,  whoso  shall  offend  one  of  these  little  ones  which  be- 
lieve in  me,  it  were  better  for  him  that  a  millstone  were 
hanged  about  his  neck,  and  that  he  were  drowned  in  the 
depth  of  the  sea. — Matt,  xviii.  2 — 6. 

Moreover,  if  thy  brother  shall  trespass  against  thee,  go 
and  tell  him  his  fault  between  thee  and  him  alone  :  if  he 
shall  hear  thee,  thou  hast  gained  thy  brother.  But  if  he 
will  not  hear  thee,  then  take  with  thee  one  or  two  more, 
that  in  the  mouth  of  two  or  three  witnesses  every  word 
may  be  established.  And  if  he  shall  neglect  to  hear  them, 
tell  it  unto  the  church :  but  if  he  neglect  to  hear  the 
church,  let  him  be  unto  thee  as  an  heathen  man  and  a 
publican. — Matt,  xviii.  15 — 17. 

Then  came  Peter  to  him,  and  said,  Lord,  how  oft  shall 
my  brother  sin  against  me,  and  I  forgive  him  ?  till  seven 
times  ?  Jesus  saith  unto  him,  I  say  not  unto  thee,  Until 
seven  times  :  but.  Until  seventy  times  seven. 

Therefore  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven  likened  unto  a  cer- 
tain kino;  which  would  take  account  of  his  servants.  And 
when  he  had  begun  to  reckon,  one  was  brought  unto  him 

2* 


18  SPECIAL    TEACHINGS    OF    CHRIST. 


wliicli  owed  him  ten  tliousand  talents.    But  forasmucli  as 
he  had  not  to  pay,  his  lord  commanded  him  to  be  sold^ 
and  his  wife  and  children,  and  all  that  he  had,  and  pay- 
ment to  be  made.     The  servant  therefore  fell  down,  and 
worshipped  him,  saying,  Lord,  have  patience  with  me,  and 
I  will  pay  thee  all.     Then  the  lord  of  that  servant  was 
moved  with  compassion,  and  loosed  him,  and  forgave  him 
the  debt.     But  the  same  servant  went  out,  and  found  one 
of  his  fellow-servants,  which  owed  him  an  hundred  pence  : 
and  he  laid  hands  on  him,  and  took  him  by  the  throat, 
saying.  Pay  me  that  thou  owest.     And  his  fellow-servant 
fell  down  at  his  feet,  and  besought  him,  saying,  Have  pa- 
tience with  me,  and  I  will  pay  thee  all.     And  he  would 
not :  but  went  and  cast  him  into  prison,  till  he  should  pay 
the  debt.    So  when  his  fellow-servants  saw  what  was  done, 
they  were  very  sorry,  and  came  and  told  unto  their  lord 
all  that  was  done.    Then  his  lord,  after  that  he  had  called 
him,  said  unto  him,  0  thou  wicked  servant,  I  forgave  thee 
all  that  debt,  because  thou  desiredst  me :  shouldest  not 
thou  also  have  had  compassion  on  thy  fellow-servant,  even 
as  I  had  pity  on  thee  ?     And  his  lord  was  wroth,  and  de- 
livered him  to  the  tormentors,  till  he  should  pay  all  that 
was  due  unto  him.    So  likewise  shall  my  heavenly  Father 
do  also  unto  you,  if  ye  from  your  hearts  forgive  not  every 
one  his  brother  their  trespasses. — Matt,  xviii.  21 — 35. 

Jesus  said.  Thou  shalt  do  no  murder  j  Thou  shalt  not 
commit  adultery  j  Thou  shalt  not  steal ;  Thou  shalt  not 
bear  false  witness  3  Honour  thy  father  and  thy  mother  : 
and,  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself.  The  young 
man  saith  unto  him,  All  these  things  have  I  kept  from 
my  youth  up :  what  lack  I  yet  ?     Jesus  said  unto  him, 


SPECIAL    TEACHINGS    OF    CHRIST.  19 


If  thou  wilt  be  jDerfect;  go  and  sell  that  thou  hast,  and 
give  to  the  poor,  and  thou  shalt  have  treasure  in  heaven : 
and  come  and  follow  me. — 3Iatt.  xix.  18 — 21. 

Jesus  said  unto  him,  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God 
with  all  thy  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy 
mind.  This  is  the  first  and  great  commandment.  And 
the  second  is  like  unto  it.  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour 
as  thyself.— J/a^<5.  xxii.  37—39. 

When  the  Son  of  man  shall  come  in  his  glory,  and  all 
the  holy  angels  with  him,  then  shall  he  sit  upon  the  throne 
of  his  glory ;  and  before  him  shall  be  gathered  all  na- 
tions :  and  he  shall  separate  them  one  from  another,  as  a 
shepherd  divideth  his  sheep  from  the  goats  :  and  he  shall 
set  the  sheep  on  his  right  hand,  but  the  goats  on  the  left. 
Then  shall  the  King  say  unto  them  on  his  right  hand. 
Come,  ye  blessed  of  my  Father,  inherit  the  kingdom  pre- 
pared for  you  from  the  foundation  of  the  world :  for  I 
was  an  hungered,  and  ye  gave  me  meat :  I  was  thirsty, 
and  ye  gave  me  drink :  I  was  a  stranger,  and  ye  took  me 
in :  naked,  and  ye  clothed  me  :  I  was  sick,  and  ye  visited 
me  :  I  was  in  prison,  and  ye  came  unto  me.  Then  shall 
the  righteous  answer  him,  saying.  Lord,  when  saw  we  thee 
an  hungered  and  fed  thee?  or  thirsty,  and  gave  thee 
drink  ?  When  saw  we  thee  a  stranger,  and  took  thee  in  ? 
or  naked,  and  clothed  thee  ?  Or  when  saw  we  thee  sick, 
or  in  prison,  and  came  unto  thee  ?  And  the  King  shall 
answer  and  say  unto  them.  Verily  I  say  unto  you,  Inas- 
much as  ye  have  done  it  unto  one  of  the  least  of  these  my 
brethren,  ye  have  done  it  unto  me.  Then  shall  he  say 
also  unto  them  on   the  left  hand,  Depart  from  me,  ye 


20  SPECIAL   TEACHINGS   OF   CURIST. 


cursed,  into  everlasting  fire,  prepared  for  tlie  devil  and 
his  angels :  for  I  was  an  hungered  and  ye  gave  me  no 
meat :  I  was  thirsty,  and  ye  gave  me  no  drink :  I  was  a 
stranger,  and  ye  took  me  not  in  :  naked,  and  ye  clothed 
me  not :  sick,  and  in  prison,  and  ye  visited  me  not.  Then 
shall  they  also  answer  him,  saying.  Lord,  when  saw  we 
thee  an  hungered,  or  athirst,  or  a  stranger,  or  naked,  or 
sick,  or  in  prison,  and  did  not  minister  unto  thee  ?  Then 
shall  he  answer  them,  saying.  Verily  I  say  unto  you.  In- 
asmuch as  ye  did  it  not  to  one  of  the  least  of  these,  ye  did 
it  not  to  me.  And  these  shall  go  away  into  everlasting 
punishment :  but  the  righteous  into  life  eternal. — Matt, 
XXV.  31 — 46. 

For  whosoever  shall  give  you  a  cup  of  water  to  drink 
in  my  name,  because  ye  belong  to  Christ,  verily  I  say 
unto  you,  he  shall  not  lose  his  reward.  And  whosoever 
shall  offend  one  of  these  little  ones  that  believe  in  me,  it 
is  better  for  him  that  a  millstone  were  hanged  about  his 
neck,  and  he  were  cast  into  the  sea. — Mark  ix.  41,  42. 

And  they  brought  young  children  to  him,  that  he  should 
touch  them ;  and  his  disciples  rebuked  those  that  brought 
them.  But  when  Jesus  saw  it,  he  was  much  displeased, 
and  said  unto  them.  Suffer  the  little  children  to  come  unto 
me,  and  forbid  them  not :  for  of  such  is  the  kingdom  of 
God.  Verily  I  say  unto  you.  Whosoever  shall  not  re- 
ceive the  kingdom  of  God  as  a  little  child,  he  shall  not 
enter  therein.  And  he  took  them  up  in  his  arms,  put 
his  hands  upon  them,  and  blessed  them. 

And  when  he  was  gone  forth  into  the  way,  there  came 


SPECIAL    TEACHINGS    OF    CHRIST.  21 


one  running,  and  kneeled  to  him,  and  asked  him,  Grood 
Master,  what  shall  I  do  that  I  may  inherit  eternal  life  ? 
And  Jesus  said  unto  him,  Why  callest  thou  me  good  ? 
there  is  none  good  but  one,  that  is  God.  Thou  knowest 
the  commandments.  Do  not  commit  adultery,  Do  not  kill. 
Do  not  steal.  Do  not  bear  false  witness.  Defraud  not, 
Honour  thy  father  and  mother.  And  he  answered  and 
said  unto  him.  Master,  all  these  have  I  obseryed  from  my 
youth.  Then  Jesus  beholding  him  loved  him,  and  said 
unto  him,  One  thing  thou  lackest :  go  thy  way,  sell  what- 
soever thou  hast,  and  give  to  the  poor,  and  thou  shalt 
have  treasure  in  heaven;  and  come,  take  up  the  cross, 
and  follow  me.  And  he  was  sad  at  that  saying,  and  went 
away  grieved ;  for  he  had  great  possessions. 

And  Jesus  looked  round  about,  and  saith  unto  his  disci- 
ples. How  hardly  shall  they  that  have  riches  enter  into 
the  kingdom  of  God  !  And  the  disciples  were  astonished 
at  his  words.  But  Jesus  answereth  again,  and  saith  unto 
them.  Children,  how  hard  is  it  for  them  that  trust  in 
riches  to  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God  !  It  is  easier  for 
a  camel  to  go  through  the  eye  of  a  needle,  than  for  a  rich 
man  to  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God.  And  they  were 
astonished  out  of  measure,  saying  among  themselves.  Who 
then  can  be  saved  ?  And  Jesus  looking  upon  them,  saith. 
With  men  it  is  impossible,  but  not  with  God :  for  with 
God  all  things  are  possible. — Mark  x.  13 — 27. 

But  I  say  unto  you  which  hear,  Love  your  enemies,  do 
good  to  them  which  hate  you,  bless  them  that  curse  you, 
and  pray  for  them  which  despitefuUy  use  you.  And  unto 
him  that  smiteth  thee  on  the  one  cheek,  offer  also  the 


22  SPECIAL   TEACHINGS    OF   CHRIST. 


other ;  and  him  that  taketh  away  thy  cloak,  forbid  not  to 
take  thy  coat  also.  Give  to  every  man  that  asketh  of  thee ; 
and  of  him  that  taketh  away  thy  goods,  ask  them  not 
again.  And  as  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do 
ye  also  to  them  likewise.  For  if  ye  love  them  which  love 
you,  what  thank  have  ye  ?  for  sinners  also  love  those  that 
love  them.  And  if  ye  do  good  to  them  which  do  good 
to  you,  what  thank  have  ye  ?  for  sinners  also  do  even  the 
same.  And  if  ye  lend  to  them  of  whom  ye  hope  to  re- 
ceive, what  thank  have  ye  ?  for  sinners  also  lend  to  sin- 
ners, to  receive  as  much  again.  But  love  ye  your  ene- 
mies, and  do  good,  and  lend,  hoping  for  nothing  again ; 
and  your  reward  shall  be  great,  and  ye  shall  be  the  chil- 
di-en  of  the  Hisjhest :  for  he  is  kind  unto  the  unthankful 
and  to  the  evil.  Be  ye  therefore  merciful,  as  your  Father 
also  is  merciful.  Judge  not,  and  ye  shall  not  be  judged: 
condemn  not,  and  ye  shall  not  be  condemned :  forgive, 
and  ye  shall  be  forgiven  :  give,  and  it  shall  be  given  unto 
you;  good  measure,  pressed  down,  and  shaken  together, 
and  running  over,  shall  men  give  into  your  bosom.  For 
with  the  same  measure  that  ye  mete  withal,  it  shall  be 
measured  to  you  again. — Luhe  vi.  27 — 38. 

And  why  call  ye  me  Lord,  Lord,  and  do  not  the  things 
which  I  say  ? — Luke  vi.  46. 

And  behold,  a  certain  lawyer  stood  up,  and  tempted  him, 
saying,  Master,  what  shall  I  do  to  inherit  eternal  life  ?  He 
said  unto  him.  What  is  written  in  the  law  ?  how  readest  thou  ? 
And  he  answering  said.  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  Grod 
with  all  thy  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy 


SPECIAL   TEACHINGS   OF   CHRIST,  23 


strength,  and  with  all  thy  mind  -,  and  thy  neighbour  as 
thyself.  And  he  said  unto  him,  Thou  hast  answered  right : 
this  do,  and  thou  shalt  live.  But  he,  willing  to  justify 
himself,  said  unto  Jesus,  And  who  is  my  neighbour  ?  And 
Jesus  answering,  said,  A  certain  man  went  down  from  Je- 
rusalem to  Jericho,  and  fell  among  thieves,  which  strip- 
ped him  of  his  raiment,  and  wounded  him,  and  departed, 
leaving  him  half  dead.  And  by  chance  there  came  down 
a  certain  priest  that  way ;  and  when  he  saw  him,  he  passed 
by  on  the  other  side.  And  likewise  a  Levite,  when  he 
was  at  the  place,  came  and  looked  on  him,  and  passed  by 
on  the  other  side.  But  a  certain  Samaritan,  as  he  jour- 
neyed, came  where  he  was  :  and  when  he  saw  him,  he  had 
compassion  on  him,  and  went  to  him,  and  bound  up  his 
wounds,  pouring  in  oil  and  wine,  and  sat  him  on  his  own 
beast,  and  brought  him  to  an  inn,  and  took  care  of  him. 
And  on  the  morrow,  when  he  departed,  he  took  out  two 
pence,  and  gave  them  to  the  host,  and  said  unto  him, 
Take  care  of  him :  and  whatsoever  thou  spendest  more, 
when  I  come  again,  I  will  repay  thee.  "Which  now  of 
these  three,  thinkest  thou,  was  neighbour  unto  him  that 
fell  among  the  thieves  ?  And  he  said.  He  that  showed 
mercy  on  him.  Then  said  Jesus  unto  him.  Go,  and  do 
thou  likewise. — LiiJce  x.  25 — 37. 

Then  said  he  also  to  him  that  bade  him.  When  thou 
makest  a  dinner  or  a  supper,  call  not  thy  friends,  nor 
thy  brethren,  neither  thy  kinsmen,  nor  thy  rich  neigh- 
bours; lest  they  also  bid  thee  again,  and  a  recompense 
be  made  thee.  But  when  thou  makest  a  feast,  call  the 
poor,  the  maimed,  the  lame,  the  blind  3  and  thou  shalt  be 


24  SPECIAL   TEACniNGS    OF  CHRIST. 


blessed :  for  they  cannot  recomioensc  tliee  :  for  tliou  slialt 
be  recompensed  at  the  resurrection  of  the  just. 

And  when  one  of  them  that  sat  at  meat  with  him  heard 
these  things,  he  said  unto  him,  JBlcssed  is  he  that  shall  eat 
bread  in  the  kino;dom  of  God.  Then  said  ho  unto  him,  A 
certain  man  made  a  great  supper  and  bade  many  :  and  sent 
his  servant  at  supper-time,  to  say  to  them  that  were  bid- 
den, Come,  for  all  things  are  now  ready.  And  they  all 
with  one  consent  began  to  make  excuse.  The  first  said 
unto  him,  I  have  bought  a  piece  of  ground,  and  I  must 
needs  go  and  see  it :  I  pray  thee  have  me  excused.  And 
another  said,  I  have  bought  five  yoke  of  oxen,  and  I  go  to 
prove  them  :  I  pray  thee  have  me  excused.  And  another 
said,  I  have  married  a  wife  :  and  therefore  I  cannot  come. 
So  that  servant  came,  and  showed  his  lord  these  things. 
Then  the  master  of  the  house  being  angry,  said  to  his 
servant.  Go  out  quickly  into  the  streets  and  lanes  of 
the  city,  and  bring  in  hither  the  poor,  and  the  maimed, 
and  the  halt,  and  the  blind.  And  the  servant  said.  Lord, 
it  is  done  as  thou  hast  commanded,  and  yet  there  is  room. 
And  the  lord  said  unto  the  servant,  Go  out  into  the  high- 
ways  and  hedges,  and  compel  them  to  come  in,  that  my 
house  may  be  filled.  For  I  say  unto  you,  that  none  of 
those  men  which  were  bidden  shall  taste  of  my  supper. — 
Luke  xiv.  12 — 24. 

And  he  spake  this  parable  unto  certain  which  trusted 
in  themselves  that  they  were  righteous,  and  despised 
others  :  Two  men  went  up  into  the  temple  to  pray ;  the 
one  a  Pharisee  and  the  other  a  publican.  The  Pharisee 
stood  and  prayed  thus  with  himself,  God,  I  thank  thee 


SPECIAL    TEACHINGS    OF   CHRIST.  25 


that  I  am  not  as  other  men  are,  extortioners,  unjust,  adul- 
terers, or  even  as  this  publican.  I  fast  twice  in  the  week, 
I  give  tithes  of  all  that  I  possess.  And  the  publican, 
standing  afar  off,  would  not  lift  up  so  much  as  his  eyes 
unto  heaven,  but  smote  upon  his  breast,  saying,  Grod  be 
merciful  to  me  a  sinner.  I  tell  you,  this  man  went  down 
to  his  house  justified  rather  than  the  other  :  for  every  one 
that  exalteth  himself  shall  be  abased ;  and  he  that  hum- 
bleth  himself  shall  be  exalted. — Lxike  xviii.  9 — 14. 

And  Zaccheus  stood,  and  said  unto  the  Lord ;  Behold, 
Lord,  the  half  of  my  goods  I  give  to  the  poor ;  and  if  I 
have  taken  any  thing  from  any  man  by  fidsc  accusation, 
[  restore  him  four-fold. — Luke  xix.  8. 

And  the  scribes  and  Pharisees  brought  unto  him  a  wo- 
man taken  in  adultery  :  and  when  they  had  set  her  in  the 
midst,  they  say  unto  him.  Master,  this  woman  was  taken 
in  adultery,  in  the  very  act.  Now  Moses  in  the  law  com- 
manded us,  that  such  should  be  stoned :  but  what  sayest 
thou  ?  This  they  said,  tempting  him,  that  they  might 
have  to  accuse  him.  But  Jesus  stooped  down,  and  with 
his  finger  wrote  on  the  ground,  as  though  he  heard  them 
not.  So  when  they  continued  asking  him,  he  lifted  up 
himself,  and  said  unto  them.  He  that  is  without  sin  among 
you,  let  him  first  cast  a  stone  at  her. — John  viii.  3 — 7. 

After  that,  he  poureth  water  into  a  basin,  and  began  to 
wash  the  disciples'  feet,  and  to  wipe  them  with  the  towel 
wherewith  he  was  girded.     Then  cometh  he  to  Simon 

Peter :  and  Peter  saith  unto  him,  Lord,  dost  thou  wash 

3 


26  SPECIAL    TEACHINGS    OF    CHRIST. 


my  feet  ?  Jesus  answered  and  said  unto  liim^  What  I  do 
thou  knowest  not  now ;  but  thou  shalt  know  hereafter. 
Peter  saith  unto  him,  Thou  shalt  never  wash  my  feet. 
Jesus  answered  him,  If  I  wash  thee  not,  thou  hast  no  part 
with  me.  Simon  Peter  saith  unto  him,  Lord,  not  my  feet 
only,  but  also  my  hands  and  my  head.  Jesus  saith  to 
him.  He  that  is  washed  needeth  not  save  to  wash  his  feet, 
but  is  clean  every  whit :  and  ye  are  clean,  but  not  all. 
For  he  knew  who  should  betray  him  :  therefore  said  he, 
Ye  are  not  all  clean.  So  after  he  had  washed  their  feet, 
and  had  taken  his  garments,  and  was  set  down  again,  he 
said  unto  them,  Know  ye  what  I  have  done  to  you  ?  Ye 
call  me  Master,  and  Lord :  and  ye  say  well ;  for  so  I  am. 
If  I  then,  your  Lord  and  Master,  have  washed  your  feet, 
ye  also  ought  to  wash  one  another's  feet.  For  I  have  given 
you  an  example,  that  ye  should  do  as  I  have  done  to 
you. — John  xiii.  5 — 15. 

A  new  commandment  I  give  unto  you,  That  ye  love  one 
another;  as  I  have  loved  you,  that  ye  also  love  one  an- 
other. By  this  shall  all  men  know  that  ye  are  my  disci- 
ples, if  ye  have  love  one  to  another. — John  xiii.  34,  35. 

This  is  my  commandment,  That  ye  love  one  another,  as 
I  have  loved  you. — John  xv.  12. 

Ye  are  my  friends  if  ye  do  whatsoever  I  command 
you. — John  xv.  14. 

These  things  I  command  you,  that  ye  love  one  an- 
other.— John  XV.  17. 


THE   REFORMATION   NOT    COMPLETE.  27 


Can  any  believer  in  Christ  deliberately 
think  upon  these  and  other  similar  teachings, 
and  not  be  apprehensive  that  a  great  reforma- 
tion remains  to  be  effected  among  his  fol- 
lowers :  a  reformation  not  less  important  than 
that  which  rescued  us  from  the  errors  of  the 
Romish  church  ?  How  does  our  Protestantism 
compare  with  these  precepts  of  our  Divine  Mas- 
ter? May  we  not  be  indulging  our  com- 
placency a  little  too  far  since  our  escape  from 
Rome  ?  Have  we  not  stopped  the  progress 
of  a  reformation  which  had  far  to  conduct  us 
before  we  adorned  these  doctrines  of  our  Lord 
and  Master  ?  Where  is  yet  the  exemplifica- 
tion of  Christianity,  even  as  it  may  be  looked 
for  on  Earth?  There  is  reason  to  fear,  that 
while,  as  Protestants,  w^e  deny  the  infallibility 
of  the  Pope,  we  are  setting  up  one  of  our  own. 
There  is  no  greater  enemy  to  the  progress  of 
truth  than  self-sufficiency.  Spiritual  arro- 
irance  is  not  rare  amonor  Protestants.  '^  AYe  are 
right,  and  you  are  wrong,"  are  assertions  dealt 
out  with  unsj)aring  frequenc}^  and  energy. 


v^ 


28    A   WARNING — WHERE    ARE    THE    CHRISTIANS  ? 


But,  in  the  present  condition  of  Chris- 
tianity, should  not  Christians  quahfy  their 
opinions  Ayith — "  Lord,  I  believe ;  help  thou 
mine  unbelief !"  When  we  are  divinely  taught 
that  if  we  had  "  faith  as  a  grain  of  mustard- 
seed,"  we  could  perform  miracles,  there  is 
surely  meaning  enough  in  this  expression  to 
warn  the  followers  of  Christ  not  to  be  of  those 
who  "trust  in  theinselves  that  they  are 
righteous,  and  despise  others." 

The  precepts  of  Christ — how  striking  their 
point,  their  power,  their  purity,  their  simpli- 
city, and  their  vast  comprehensiveness ! — 
These  exhibit  Christianity ;  but  where  is  its 
exemplification?  Where  are  the  Christians 
of  whom  it  may  be  said,  "  By  this  shall  all 
men  know  that  ye  are  my  disciples,  if  ye  have 
love  to  one  another," — such  love  as  Christ 
himself  prescribes  and  characterizes  ?  If  no 
such  exemplification,  and  no  approach  to  it, 
can  be  found,  may  we  not  fear  that  this  is  the 
barrier  which  now  stays  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity?    The  world  needs  to  be  convinced 


THE  BARRIER.   THEOLOGY.         29 


through  other  avenues  than  the  ears.  When 
the  men  of  the  heathen  world  look  upon  the 
Christian  world^,  what  do  they  behold  ?  Chris- 
tianity ? — No  !  Civilization  : — civilized  men 
indebted  to  Christianity,  but  not  repaying  the 
obligation.  They  behold  the  evidences  of 
science  on  every  side ;  but  illustrations  of  the 
pure  teachings  of  Christ  they  find  nowhere. 

"We  shall  not  now  dwell  on  this  topic,  but 
merely  inquire,  in  passing,  where  w^e  shall  find 
any  adequate  exposition  of  the  teachings  of 
Christ.  In  Protestant  religious  literature, 
where  is  that  treatise  upon  the  Love  of  God, 
which  does  justice  to  the  magnitude  of  the 
subject?  Or  in  what  system  of  divinity,  or 
work  upon  theology,  does  this  subject  occupy 
the  place  it  deserves?  It  would  appear  as 
if  theology  should  be  developed  from  that 
point. 

We  may  inquire,  in  like  manner,  where  has 
the  rule  of  our  Saviour,  '^  Whatsoever  ye 
would  that  men  should  do  to  you,  do  you  even 
so  to  them,"  received  that  full  exposition  its  im- 


3* 


30  PROTESTANT    LITERATURE. 


portance  requires  ?  It  covers  the  whole  ground 
of  man's  duty  to  man ;  yet  what  space  does  it 
occupy  in  our  reHgious  literature  ?  There  are 
scores  of  thousands  of  theological  works  of 
Protestant  origin,  yet  how  few  of  these  treat 
of  Love  to  God,  or,  Love  to  Man !  Where 
shall  we  find  any  adequate  application  of  the 
command  that  we  should  "  love  our  neighbour 
as  ourself,"  to  the  constitution  of  society,  as 
now  existing  in  Christendom?  If  these  com- 
mands are  as  broad  and  obligatory  as  their 
terms  imply,  they  constitute  the  basis  of 
the  Christian  system,  and  of  all  true  social 
economy.  No  theology  can  be  rightly  framed, 
y/  and  no  system  of  morals  or  politics  can  be 
rightly  constructed,  which  have  not  this  foun- 
dation, and  of  wdiich  the  superstructure  is  not 
cemented  by  the  same  material.  Yet,  where 
is  the  system  of  theology  which  takes  the  love 
of  God  as  its  starting  point,  and  the  love  of 
man  as  a  chief  element?  This  auestion  is 
merely  thrown  out  here  :  the  subject  will  be 
resumed  before  we  close. 


31 


THE  MISSION  OF  CHRIST  IN  HIS  OWN  WORDS. 

We  have  glanced  at  the  teachings  of  our 
Saviour.  Let  us  also  examine  his  own  prac- 
tical exposition  of  these  teachings.  He  came 
into  the  world,  not  only  to  save,  and  to  teach, 
but  to  exemplify  his  precepts.  If  his  human 
lineage  was  noble,  his  birth  was  lowly  in  the 
extreme.  His  parents  were  not  only  poor  and 
in  humble  life,  but  residents  of  a  district 
despised  by  the  rich  and  the  great.  He  not 
only  did  not  appear  in  the  world  as  a  noble  or 
a  king,  but  he  did  not  come  as  a  priest  or  a 
Levite.  His  ministry,  which  did  not  com- 
mence until  he  reached  a  ripened  manhood, 
can  be  fitly  characterized  only  in  his  own 
words.  When  John  sent  two  of  his  disciples 
to  Christ,  to  inquire,  "Art  thou  He  that 
should  come,  or  do  we  look  for  another  ?"  The 
reply  was  not  an  exposition  of  his  title  to  the 


82  IT   WAS    A    MISSION    TO    THE    POOR. 


Messiahsliip ;  not  a  summary  of  his  doctrine ; 
neither  a  creed  nor  a  sermon ;  but, — "  Go  and 
show  John  those  things  which  ye  do  hear  and 
see :  the  blind  receive  their  sight,  and  the  lame 
walk;  the  lepers  are  cleansed,  and  the  deaf 
hear;  the  dead  are  raised  up,  and  the  poor 
have  the  gospel  preached  to  them."*  He  an- 
nounced a  mission  to  the  poor,  to  the  infirm, 
the  diseased,  and  the  dying ;  and  yet  the  mis- 
sionary was  so  poor  himself,  he  had  not  where 
to  lay  his  head.  Of  this  world's  goods  it  does 
not  appear  that  he  had  any.  The  chosen  as- 
sistants of  his  ministry  were  selected  not  only 
from  among  the  poor,  but  from  among  those 
engaged  in  the  humblest  and  most  despised 
employments.  They  were  ignorant  and  un- 
learned men,  and  were  even  readily  recognised 
to  be  such  after  the  resurrection  of  Christ.f 
That  they  had  high  qualifications  or  aptness 
for  the  duties  to  which  they  were  called,  we 
cannot  doubt,  for  they  were  chosen  by  that 

*  Matt.  xi.  3,  4,  5.  t  Acts  iv.  13. 


IT   WAS    A    MISSION    TO    THE    POOR.  33 


discrimination' which  never  errs:  and  yet  that 
fitness  did  not  consist  in  clearness  of  appre- 
hension nor  powers  of  intellect ;  for  it  is  ap- 
parent that  some  of  these  disciples  did  not 
comprehend  many  of  their  Master's  plainest 
teachinsfs  until  after  his  crucifixion.  Under 
these  instructions  they  made  almost  no  pro- 
gress in  theology  :  their  labours^  like  those  of 
their  master,  were  works  of  exhortation  and 
charity.  The  personal  efforts  of  Christ  being 
chiefly  among  the  poor,  his  instruments  were 
chosen  for  that  purpose.  The  Love  of  God, 
and  the  Love  of  Man,  are  the  keys  of  all  his 
doctrines,  and  the  text  of  his  life  and  labours. 
He  came  to  the  poor,  because  they  wxre  the 
most  numerous,  the  most  suffering,  the  most 
humble,  the  most  helpless,  and  the  most  igno- 
rant. He  regarded  the  poor  as  the  most  hope- 
ful, because  least  wedded  to  this  world.  Not 
only  so,  but  he  taught  that  the  door  of  poverty 
was  the  safest  way  to  heaven.  "  How  hardly 
shall  they  that  have  riches  enter  into  the 
kingdom  of  God !    It  is  easier  for  a  camel  to 


34  CONSOLATIONS    FOR   THE    POOH. 


go  tlirougli  the  eye  of  a  needle,'tlian  for  a  rich 
man  to  enter  the  kingdom  of  God."*  He  taught 
that  those  who  trust  in  riches  must  give  up  that 
trust,  which  is  selfishness,  and  become  "  poor 
in  spirit/'  before  they  can  enter  the  kingdom 
of  heaven.  He  never  wearied  in  affording 
succour,  consoLation,  and  instruction  to  the 
poor.  He  exhorted  them  to  lay  up  for  them- 
selves treasures  in  heaven,  and  not  upon  earth. 
He  encouraged  them — '•  Are  not  ^ye  sparrows 
sold  for  two  farthings,  and  not  one  of  them  is 
forgotten  before  God?  But  even  the  very 
hairs  of  your  head  are  all  numbered.  Fear 
not,  therefore :  ye  are  of  more  value  than 
many  sparrows."f  He  taught  that  the 
widow's  mite  was  more  than  all  the  offer- 
ings of  the  rich.  How  beautifully  did  his 
life  illustrate  this  lesson ! — "  Take  no  thought 
for  your  life,  what  ye  shall  eat,  neither  for  the 
body,  what  ye  shall  put  on.  Consider  the 
ravens  :  for  they  neither  sow  nor  reap  :  which 

*  Mark  x.  23—25.  f  Luke  xii.  6,  7. 


WARNINGS    FOR   THE    RICH.  35 


have  neither  store-house  nor  barn ;  and  God 
feedeth  them.  How  much  more  are  ye  better 
than  the  fowls?" — "Consider  the  liUes  how 
they  grow  :  they  toil  not,  they  spin  not ;  and 
yet  I  say  unto  you,  that  Solomon  in  all  his  glory 
was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these.  If  then 
God  so  clothe  the  grass,  which  is  to-day  in  the 
field,  and  to-morrow  is  cast  into  the  oven ;  how 
much  more  will  he  clothe  you,  0  ye  of  little 
faith. "--^^ 

His  miraculous  power  was  chiefly  exerted 
in  behalf  of  the  poor,  in  healing  diseases,  cast- 
ing out  devils,  in  feeding  the  hungry,  in  calm- 
ing the  tempest.  His  parables  of  the  Prodigal 
Son,  and  the  Good  Samaritan,  touchingly  en- 
force our  duty  to  the  destitute  and  forsaken. 
But  whilst  his  mission  and  ministrations  were 
chiefly  among  the  poor,  the  rich  and  the  great 
were  not  forgotten,  but  were  also  objects  of 
solicitude.  His  warnings  to  them  are  solemn 
and  awful.  For  their  sakes  his  parable  of 
Lazarus  the  beggar,  who  died  in  the  street, 


*  Luke  xii.  22—28. 


36  INSTRUCTIONS    FOR   THE    RICH. 


covered  with  sores,  and  went  to  Abraham's 
bosom,  institutes  a  dialogue  between  an  in- 
habitant of  heaven,  and  one  in  the  regions  of 
eternal  despair,  in  which  the  rich  are  plainly 
told,  that  if  they  v\dll  not  believe  Moses  and 
the  prophets,  neither  would  they  believe 
though  one  rise  from  the  dead  to  warn  them. 
To  the  rich  ruler,  who  had  kept  all  the  com- 
mandments from  his  3'outh  up,  Christ  said, 
"  Yet  lackest  thou  one  thing :  sell  all  that 
thou  hast,  and  distribute  unto  the  poor,  and 
thou  shalt  have  treasure  in  heaven:  and 
come,  follow  me."*  Our  Lord  did  not  bv  this 
teach  that  there  should  be  no  individual  pro- 
perty, or  that  goods  should  be  in  common. 
The  special  instruction  was  for  the  particular 
man.  His  general  doctrine  is,  "  How  hardly 
shall  they  that  trust  in  riches  enter  into  the 
kingdom  of  God !  But  what  is  impossible  with 
man,  is  possible  with  God."  He  that  trusts  in 
riches  cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God. 
Every  disciple  of  Christ  must  be  God's  steward, 


*  Luke  xviii.  22.     Mark  x.  21. 


INSTITUTIONS    OF   MEN    TO    CHANGE.  37 


and  hold  Iiis  riches^  if  he  hold  them  at  all,  for 
Hun  v/liose  servant  he  is.  To  one  the  com- 
mand may  he,  "  Sell  all  thou  hast,  give  to  the 
poor,  and  come  and  follow  me ;"  hecause  he  can 
be  saved  only  in  that  way.  To  another  the 
command  may  he,  "  Occupy  till  I  come ;"  ad- 
minister what  I  have  given  thee  under  the 
law — "  Love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself,"  until 
I  call  thee  to  account.  He  to  whom  riches 
prove  a  snare  and  a  temptation  too  great  for 
his  strength,  must  give  them  up ;  whilst  he 
who  can  hold  them  as  instruments  of  good, 
becomes  the  servant  of  God. 

(Christ  took  the  institutions  of  men  as  he 
found  them,  and  seemed  to  require  that  they 
should  be  changed  only  as  the  hearts  of  those 
who  lived  under  them  changed.  He  knew 
that  no  change  could  be  permanent  unless 
founded  in  the  hearts  and  minds  of  the  peo- 
ple. He  did  not  require  that  the  rich  and 
poor  should  change  places,  nor  that  all  men 
should  be  lifted  above  the  state  of  poverty ; 
for  he  said.  "  The  poor  alwavs  ve  have  with 

4 


38         AVITH    CHANGE    OF    HEARTS    AND    MINDS. 


you."*  He  did  not  require  that  the  master 
sliould  give  up  his  slave,  nor  that  the  slave 
should  quit  or  resist  his  master.  He  did  not 
offer  resistance  to  the  laws  or  public  authori- 
ties, or  in  any  manner  teach  that  his  king- 
dom was  of  this  world.  He  simply  taught 
that  men  should  love  their  neighbours  as 
themselves,  and  left  that  great  law  of  human 
conduct  to  accomplish  all  the  changes  and 
revolutions  necessary  for  the  progress  of  his. 
doctrines  and  tlie  best  interests  of  men.  He 
utterty  refused  to  take  any  authority  or  ad- 
ministration in  temporal  matters.  To  him 
who  asked  him  to  interfere  in  the  division  of 
an  inheritance,  he  replied,  "  Man,  who  made 
me  a  judge,  or  a  divider  over  you  Tf  When 
the  woman  taken  in  adultery  was  l^rought  to 
him  for  judgment,  he  said,  "He  that  is  vrith- 
out  sin  among  you,  let  him  first  cast  a  stone 

"'^  John  xii.  8. 

"t"  Luke  xii.  14. — This  is  somewhat  in  contrast  with  the  course 
of  the  Bishops  of  the  EstabUshed  Church  of  England,  who  have 
taken  charge  of  the  administration  of  estates,  and  have  become 
judges  and  dividers  over  their  fcllow-iuen. 


PARABLE    OF    THE    LAST    JUDGMENT.  89 


at  her."  And  when  her  accusers  had  slunk 
away,  he  said  to  the  woman,  "  Neither  do  I 
condemn  thee.  Go,  and  sin  no  more."*  He 
did  not  require  him  whom  he  exhorted  to  sell 
his  goods,  to  bring  the  proceeds  to  him  for  dis- 
tribution, but  to  give  to  the  poor  himself.  To 
those  who  tempted  him  in  regard  to  paying 
tribute  to  the  Eoman  emperors,  he  replied, 
"Render  unto  Csesar  the  things  that  are 
Caesar's,  and  unto  God  the  things  that  are 
God's."t  To  Pilate  he  said,  "  My  kingdom 
is  not  of  this  world."J 

The  most  striking  illustration  of  our  Sa- 
viour's life  and  doctrines  is  to  be  found  in  his 
exemplification  or  parable  of  the  last  judg- 
ment. When  all  nations  are  gathered  before 
the  final  Judge,  and  when  the  blessed  are 
placed  on  his  right  hand,  and  the  guilty 
on  his  left, — "  Then  shall  the  King  say  unto 
them  on  his  right  hand.  Come  ye  blessed  of 
my  Father,  inherit  the  kingdom  prepared  for 
you  from  the  foundation  of  the  world :  for  I 

"  John  viii.  7,  11.  t  Matt.  xxii.  21.  J  John  xviii.  36. 


40  CHARITY   AND    MERCY. 


was  an  hungered,  and  ye  gave  me  meat :  I 
was  thirsty,  and  je  gave  me  drink :  I  was  a 
stranger,  and  ye  took  me  in :  naked,  and  ye 
clothed  me :  sick,  and  ye  visited  me ;  I  was 
in  prison,  and  ye  came  unto  me."  And  to 
the  question  of  the  righteous,  when  had  they 
done  these  things,  the  reply  is,  "Yerilj^,  I 
say  unto  you.  Inasmuch  as  ye  have  done  it 
unto  one  of  the  least  of  these  my  brethren, 
ye  have  done  it  unto  me."'-'  The  condemna- 
tion of  the  wicked  is  placed  upon  the  ground 
that  "  Inasmuch  as  ye  did  it  not  unto  one  of 
the  least  of  these,  ye  did  it  not  to  me."f  There 
/  is  here  nothing  about  churches,  creeds,  con- 
fessions, catechisms,  prayer-books;  nothing 
of  theology,  faith,  or  doctrine ;  and  yet  this 
is  the  last  judgment,  characterized  by  the  final 
Jud^e  Himself. 
y  Can  it  be  more  strongly  enforced  that  the 
mission  of  the  disciples  of  Christ  on  earth  is 
one  of  charity  and  mercy  ?     If  the  tree  bear 

*  Matthew  xxv.  31.  |  Ibid.  xxv.  45. 


VARIOUS  MINDS,  VARIOUS  OPINIONS.     41 


not  these  fruits^  it  is  none  of  his  planting. 
There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  he  who  loves 
God  supremely^  and  his  neighbour  as  himself, 
cannot  err  fatally  in  his  theology.  He  may 
require  for  his  profit^  encouragement^  and 
spiritual  sustenance,  all  the  means  of  grace 
and  instructions  within  his  reach;  but  no 
amount  of  this  sort  of  work  constitutes  Chris- 
tianity, nor  insures  salvation.  There  must, 
in  the  infinite  variety  of  minds,  be  an  infinite 
variety  in  the  way  of  regarding  these  sub- 
jects; and  every  one  is  bound,  under  the 
instructions  given  in  the  word  of  God,  to 
think  for  himself.  These  instructions  are  not 
so  detailed  but  that  every  believer  must  in 
very  many  things  be  left  to  his  own  discre- 
tion :  he  is  a  steward,  bound  to  execute  his 
Lord's  will,  but  with  a  large  discretion  as  to 
the  mode  of  performance.  Those  servants 
who  received  the  talents  from  their  master,  to 
be  employed  by  them  in  his  absence,  used 
their  own  discretion  in  the  manner  of  it,  and 
he   who  buried  his   in   a  napkin  was   con- 


42  RESPONSIBILITY   FOR    OPINIONS, 


demned,  because  he  had  refused  to  exercise 
that  discretion.  It  is  abundantly  clear  that 
those  who  love  God  and  their  fellow-men, 
with  all  their  hearts  and  mindS;  have  the  gift 
of  spiritual  perception,  and  can,  as  they 
walk  through  life,  unlock  all  the  treasures 
they  find,  comprehending  them  with  as  much 
certainty  as  is  consistent  with  the  limited 
intellects  and  many  infirmities  of  human 
nature.  We  are  far  from  asserting  that  it  is 
immaterial  what  men  believe,  so  they  are 
honest  in  their  belief;  we  say  that  men  may 
greatly  err  in  doctrine  and  theology,  and  yet 
be  safe.  They  are  not  excusable  for  re- 
mainmg  in  error,  when  they  have  the  means 
to  escape  from  it.  Every  man,  with  the  Scrip- 
tures in  his  hands,  is  bound  to  search  them 
anxiously,  carefully,  and  with  an  honest  de- 
sire after  the  truth :  it  is  his  duty  to  supply 
himself  with  all  the  help  he  can,  both  from 
books  and  living  teachers ;  but  in  the  last  resort 
he  must  believe  for  himself,  and  not  by  an- 
other ',  his  belief  must  be  built  on  his  own 


UNIFORMITY    UNATTAINABLE.  43 


convictions^  and  not  on  those  of  anothei^^  A 
man's  religious  mind,  the  state  of  his  soul  in 
its  relations  with  religious  truths,  must  be 
made  up  from  its  own  investigations,  decisions, 
and  exercises,  and  not  those  of  another.  He 
is  bound  to  perfect  himself  in  belief  and 
practice,  to  the  utmost  extent  of  his  capacity ; 
and  no  doubt  all  men  fall  short  of  their  duty 
in  this  respect.  It  is  obviously  absurd  to  bind 
men  by  creeds  and  confessions,  and  expect 
them  to  keep  together  and  be  uniform  in  faith 
or  speculation.  Such  efforts  can  only  pro- 
duce a  seeming  uniformity,  and  exert  a  decided 
influence  towards  hypocrisy  or  want  of  can- 
dour. Happy  are  Ave  indeed,  that  there  is  a 
way  of  salvation  equally  efficacious  for  errors 
of  judgment  as  well  as  errors  of  life.  No 
human  scrutiny  nor  discrimination  dare  draw 

the  line  of  doctrine  or  conduct  which  bounds 
the  mercy  of  God  in  Christ. 

Let  every  man,  therefore,  examine  himself, 

upon  his  eternal  peril,  and  see  whether  he 

has  made  that'  progress  in  truth  of  which  he 


44  DIVERSITY    OF    CONYICTICX. 


i^. capable,  and  wlietlier  lie  may  not  be  enter- 
taining errors  in  doctrine,  for  which  it  is  no 
excuse  for  him  that  others  entertain  them. 
And  let  all  religious  teachers  take  heed  to 
their  teaching,  and  not  think  they  have  done 
their  duty  by  aiming  at  an  apparent  conformity 
of  faith,  to  be  maintained  by  church  discipline, 
public  opinion,  and  other  external  influences  : 
let  them  remember  that  their  hearers  are  to 
be  made  free  in  Christ,  and  not  to  have  yokes 
laid  upon  them.  They  are  bound  to  instruct 
them  in  the  truth,  but  they  cannot  command 
their  assent.  The  Reformation  let  in  a  flood 
of  light,  and  set  multitudes  free  from  the 
bondage  of  error;  their  minds  rioted  in  reli- 
gious truth,  and,  as  a  necessary  consequence, 
diversities  of  opinion  arose,  and  diversities  of 
conviction  resulted  in  a  variety  of  sects.  This 
was  unavoidable ;  not  only  so,  but  freedom 
of  religious  thought  not  merely  begets  this 
variety  of  sects, — it  must  produce  an  equal 
diversity  of  opinion  in  the  bosom  of  each 
sect:  na}^  more,  in  the  mind  of  every  active 


RELIC! lOUS    PROGRESS.  45 


Christian  there  is  much  diversity.  And  it 
must  be  so,  because  it  is  clearly  a  part  of 
God's  mode  of  dealing  with  men,  that  they 
must  be  continually  struggling  between  good 
and  evil ;  continually  deciding  between  truth 
and  falsehood,  between  right  and  wrong ;  con- 
tinually exercising  patience,  practising  self- 
denial,  resisting  temptations,  and  undergoing 
an  infinity  of  trials  of  greater  or  less  magni- 
tude,— all  which  constitute  the  school  in  which 
souls  take  their  form  and  character,  which 
determine  their  capacity  for  everlasting  hap- 
piness, or  ^x  their  destiny  for  unending 
misery.  Men  who  by  long  and  patient  study 
acquire  great  knowledge,  and  by  continual 
exercise  strengthen  their  intellect,  attain  to  a 
capacity  for  intellectual  enjoyment  not  only 
great,  but  capable  of  indefinite  enlargement. 
So  those  Avho  exercise  their  religious  affections, 
capacities,  and  graces,  to  their  utmost  power 
here,  are  the  better  fitted  to  enter  upon  the 
pure  joys  of  the-  heavenly  state,  whenever 
called  to  a  separation  from  the  body.  From  this 


46  BOND    OF    HARMONY. 


preparation,  in  the  infinity  of  these  various 
exercises  and  experiences,  operating  on  indi- 
vidual minds,  there  must  necessarily  be 
evolved  an  endless  variety  of  thought,  of 
character,  and  of  opinions;  a  diversity  as 
great  as  the  number  of  individuals.  As 
from  these  differences  are  constituted  many 
sects,  not  agreeing  in  all  things,  but  in  many 
things  which  consist  with  harmony  of  action ; 
it  does  not  comport  with  God's  government 
that  these  diversities  of  opinion  should  be 
obliterated  or  smoothed  away.  The  cords 
which  bind  his  disciples  together  should  not 
be  composed  of  opinions,  nor  doctrines,  nor 
creeds :  the  cords  provided  for  this  unity  are 
love  to  God  and  love  to  man;  the  ties  of  the 
affections  are  the  real  bonds  of  peace  with 
God  and  man.  If  the  bonds  of  love  be  made 
strong  enough,  and  drawn  close  enough,  differ- 
ences in  theology  will  be  little  remarked  and 
sectarian  asperity  will  find  no  soil  in  which  to 
grow.  The  struggle  among  sects  will  then  be 
not  to  injure  each  other,  not  to  surpass  in 


PRIMITIVE    EXAMPLE.  47 


numbers  and  power,  but  to  surpass  each  other 
in  efforts  to  promote  the  interests  of  the  Re- 
deemer's kingdom,  by  Labouring  for  the  best 
interests  of  men  temporal  and  eternal.  ] 


THE  MINISTRY  AND  TEACHING  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 

Whilst  the  words  of  Christ  were  yet  sound- 
ing in  the  ears  of  liis  disciples,  they  com- 
menced their  ministry  at  Jerusalem.  They 
followed  their  Master's  example  of  preaching 
the  gospel  to  the  poor,  of  healing  the  sick, 
the  lame,  the  blind,  and  deaf,  and  of  raising 
the  dead.  ^^  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none," 
said  Peter  to  the  man  lame  from  his  birth ; 
''  but  such  as  I  have  give  I  thee  :  in  the  name 
of  Jesus  Christ  of  Nazareth,  rise  up  and 
walk."*  One  of  the  earliest  results  of  their 
ministry  and  teaching  is  thus  recorded: 
"And  all  that  believed  were  together,  and 


*  Acts  iii.  6. 


48  CHRISTIAN    HOSPITALITY. 


had  all  things  common :  and  sold  their  pos- 
sessions and  goods,  and  parted  them  to  all 
men,  as  every  man  had  need."*  "  And  the 
multitude  of  them  that  believed  were  of  one 
heart  and  of  one  soul :  neither  said  any  of  them 
that  aught  of  the  things  which  he  possessed 
was  his  own,  but  they  had  all  things  com- 
mon." "Neither was  there  any  among  them 
that  lacked :  for  as  many  as  were  possessors 
of  lands  or  houses  sold  them,  and  brought 
the  prices  of  the  things  that  were  sold,  and  laid 
them  down  at  the  apostles'  feet,  and  distribu- 
tion was  made  unto  every  man  according  as 
he  had  need."f  The  distribution  of  the  pro- 
ceeds of  these  benefactions  among  the  needy 
soon  absorbed  so  much  of  the  time  and  atten- 
tion of  the  apostles,  as  to  draw  them  unduly 
from  their  peculiar  duties  of  preaching  the  gos- 
pel, and  made  it  necessary  to  select  and  aj^point 
men  to  this  special  business.  J  Frequent  men- 
tion is  made^  throughout  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 


*  Acts  ii.  44,  45.        f  Acts  iv.  32,  34,  35.        X  Acts  vi.  1—3. 


APOSTOLIC   EXHORTATIONS.  49 


ties  and  the  Epistles,  of  the  great  liberality 
and  hospitality  of  the  early  Christians;  but 
it  is  obvious  that  within  the  space  permitted 
to  these  writings,  few  details  of  the  private  life 
of  the  converts  could  be  included.  We  can 
refer  to  what  the  apostles  taught,  as  some 
evidence  of  what  the  first  Christians  practised. 

And  all  that  believed  were  together,  and  had  all  things 
common ;  and  sold  their  possessions  and  goods,  and  parted 
them  to  all  men,  as  every  man  had  need. — Acts  ii.  44,  45. 

And  the  multitude  of  them  that  believed  were  of  one 
heart,  and  of  one  soul :  neither  said  any  of  them  that 
aught  of  the  things  which  he  possessed  was  his  own  :  but 
they  had  all  things  common.  And  with  great  power  gave 
the  apostles  witness  of  the  resurrection  of  the  Lord  Jesus  : 
and  great  grace  was  upon  them  all.  Neither  was  there 
any  among  them  that  lacked :  for  as  many  as  were  pos- 
sessors of  lands  or  houses  sold  them,  and  brought  the 
prices  of  the  things  that  were  sold,  and  laid  them  down 
at  the  apostles'  feet :  and  distribution  was  made  unto  every 
man  according  as  he  had  need. — Acts  iv.  32 — 35. 

He  that  giveth,  let  him  do  it  with  simplicity  :  he  that 
ruleth,  with  diligence ;  he  that  showeth  mercy,  with  cheer- 
fulness. Let  love  be  without  dissimulation.  Abhor  that 
which  is  evil;  cleave  to  that  which  is  good.  Be  kindly 
affectioned  one  to  another  with  brotherly  love ;  in  honour 
preferring  one  another. — Roiii.  xii.  8 — 10. 


50  APOSTOLIC   EXHORTATIONS. 


Distributing  to  the  necessity  of  saints ;  given  to  hospi- 
tality. Bless  them  which  persecute  you ;  bless,  and  curse 
not.  Rejoice  with  them  that  do  rejoice,  and  weep  with 
them  that  weep.  Be  of  the  same  mind  one  toward  an- 
other. Mind  not  high  things,  but  condescend  to  men  of 
low  estate.  Be  not  wise  in  your  own  conceits.  Recom- 
pense to  no  man  evil  for  evil.  Provide  things  honest  in 
the  sight  of  all  men.  If  it  be  possible,  as  much  as  lieth 
in  you,  live  peaceably  with  all  men.  Dearly  beloved, 
avenge  not  yourselves,  but  rather  give  place  unto  wrath  : 
for  it  is  written.  Vengeance  is  mine ;  I  will  repay,  saith 
the  Lord.  Therefore,  if  thine  enemy  hunger,  feed  him; 
if  he  thirst,  give  him  drink  :  for  in  so  doing  thou  shalt 
heap  coals  of  fire  on  his  head.  Be  not  overcome  of  evil, 
but  overcome  evil  with  good.- — Rom.  xii.  13 — 21. 

Owe  no  man  any  thing,  but  to  love  one  another :  for  he 
that  loveth  another  hath  fulfilled  the  law. — Rom.  xiii.  8. 

Love  worketh  no  ill  to  his  neighbour  :  therefore  love  is 
the  fulfilling  of  the  law. — Rom.  xiii.  10. 

For  none  of  us  liveth  to  himself,  and  no  man  dieth  to 
himself. — Rom.  xiv.  7. 

But  why  dost  thou  judge  thy  brother  ?  or  why  dost 
thou  set  at  nought  thy  brother  ?  for  we  shall  all  stand  be- 
fore the  judgment-seat  of  Christ. — Rom.  xiv.  10. 

Let  us  not  therefore  judge  one  another  any  more  :  but 
judge  this  rather,  that  no  man  put  a  stumbling-block,  or 
an  occasion  to  fall,  in  his  brother's  way. — Rom.  xiv.  13. 

We  then  that  are  strong  ought  to  bear  the  infirmities 


APOSTOLIC   EXHORTATIONS.  51 


of  the  weak,  and  not  to  please  ourselves.  Let  every  one  of 
lis  please  his  neighbour  for  his  good  to  edification. — Rom. 
XV.  1,  2. 

Now  the  God  of  patience  and  consolation  grant  you  to 
be  likeminded  one  toward  another  according  to  Christ 
Jesus. — Rom.  xv.  5. 

Wherefore  receive  ye  one  another,  as  Christ  also  re- 
ceived us,  to  the  glory  of  God. — i?om.  xv.  7. 

Now  I  beseech  you,  brethren,  by  the  name  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  that  ye  all  speak  the  same  thing,  and  that 
there  be  no  divisions  among  you;  but  that  ye  be  perfectly 
joined  together  in  the  same  mind,  and  in  the  same  judg- 
ment.— 1  Cor.  i.  10. 

Now  therefore  there  is  utterly  a  fault  among  you,  be- 
cause ye  go  to  law  one  with  another.  Why  do  ye  not 
rather  take  wrong  ?  why  do  ye  not  rather  suffer  your- 
selves to  be  defrauded  ?  Nay,  ye  do  wrong,  and  defraud, 
and  that  your  brethren. — 1  Cor.  vi.  7,  8. 

Though  I  speak  with  the  tongues  of  men  and  pf  angels, 
and  have  not  charity,  I  am  become  as  sounding  brass,  or 
a  tinkling  cymbal.  And  though  I  have  the  gift  of  pro- 
phecy, and  understand  all  mysteries,  and  all  knowledge ; 
and  though  I  have  all  faith,  so  that  I  could  remove  moun- 
tains, and  have  not  charity,  I  am  nothing.  And  though 
I  bestow  all  my  goods  to  feed  the  poor,  and  though  I  give 
my  body  to  be  burned,  and  have  not  charity,  it  profiteth 
me  nothing.    Charity  suffereth  long,  and  is  kind ;  charity 


52  TEACHINGS    OF    THE   APOSTLES. 


enyieth  not;  charity  vaunteth  not  itself,  is  not  puffed  up, 
doth  not  behave  itself  unseemly,  seeketh  not  her  own,  is 
not  easily  provoked,  thinketh  no  evil ;  rejoiceth  not  in 
iniquity,  but  rejoiceth  in  the  truth;  beareth  all  things, 
believeth  all  things,  hopeth  all  things,  endureth  all  things. 
Charity  never  faileth :  but  whether  there  be  prophecies, 
they  shall  fail ;  whether  there  be  tongues,  they  shall 
cease ;  whether  there  be  knowledge,  it  shall  vanish  away. — 

1  Cor.  xiii.  1 — 8. 

And  now  abideth  fiiith,  hope,  charity,  these  three ;  but 
the  greatest  of  these  is  charity. — 1  Cor.  xiii.  13. 

Let  all  your  things  be  done  with  charity. — 1  Cor. 
xvi.  14. 

For  to  their  power,  I  bear  record,  yea,  and  beyond  their 
power,  they  were  willing  of  themselves ;  praying  us  with 
much  entreaty,  that  we  would  receive  the  gift,  and  take 
upon  us  the  fellowship  of  the  ministering  to  the  saints. — 

2  Cor.  viii.  3,  4. 

Only  they  would  that  we  should  remember  the  poor ; 
the  same  which  I  also  was  forward  to  do. —  Gal.  ii.  10. 

For  all  the  law  is  fulfilled  in  one  word,  even  in  this, 
Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself. —  Gal.  v.  14. 

But  the  fruit  of  the  Spirit  is  love,  joy,  peace,  long-suf- 
fering, gentleness,  goodness,  faith. —  Gal.  v.  22. 

Bear  ye  one  another's  burdens,  and  so  fulfil  the  law  of 
Christ. —  Gal.  vi.  2. 

As  we  have  therefore  opportunity,  let  us  do  good  unto 


TEACHINGS    OF    THE   APOSTLES.  53 


all  men,  especially  unto  them  who  are  of  the  household 
of  faith. —  Gal.  vi.  10. 

With  all  lowliness  and  meekness,  with  long-suffering, 
forbearing  one  another  in  love. — Ejyli.  iv.  2. 

Wherefore  putting  away  lying,  speak  every  man  truth 
with  his  neighbour :  for  we  are  members  one  of  another. 
Be  ye  angry,  and  sin  not :  let  not  the  sun  go  down  upon 
your  wrath. — Ejyh.  iv.  25,  26. 

Let  all  bitterness,  and  wrath,  and  anger,  and  clamour, 
and  evil-speaking,  be  put  away  from  you,  with  all  malice  : 
and  be  ye  kind  one  to  another,  tender-hearted,  forgiving 
one  another,  even  as  God  for  Christ's  sake  hath  forgiven 
you.— Ej^h.  iv.  31,  32. 

If  there  be  therefore  any  consolation  in  Christ,  if  any 
comfort  of  love,  if  any  fellowship  of  the  Spirit,  if  any 
bowels  and  mercies,  fulfil  ye  my  joy,  that  ye  be  like- 
minded,  having  the  same  love,  being  of  one  accord,  of  one 
mind.  Let  nothing  be  done  through  strife  or  vain-glory ; 
but  in  lowliness  of  mind  let  each  esteem  other  better  than 
themselves.  Look  not  every  man  on  his  own  things,  but 
every  man  also  on  the  things  of  others. — Phil  ii.  1 — 4. 

Put  on  therefore,  as  the  elect  of  God,  holy  and  beloved, 
bowels  of  mercies,  kindness,  humbleness  of  mind,  meek- 
ness, long-suffering;  forbearing  one  another,  and  forgiv- 
ing one  another,  if  any  man  have  a  quarrel  against  any : 
even  as  Christ  forgave  you,  so  also  do  ye.  And  above  all 
these  things  put  on  charity,  which  is  the  bond  of  perfect- 
ness. —  Col.  iii.  12 — 14. 

5* 


54  TEACHINGS    OF    THE    APOSTLES. 


And  the  Lord  make  you  to  increase  and  abound  in  love 
one  toward  another,  and  toward  all  men,  even  as  we  do 
toward  you. — 1  Thes.  iii.  12. 

But  as  touching  brotherly  love  ye  need  not  that  I  write 
unto  you  :  for  ye  yourselves  are  taught  of  God  to  love  one 
another. — 1  Thes.  iv.  9. 

And  be  at  peace  among  yourselves.  Now  we  exhort 
you,  brethren,  warn  them  that  are  unruly,  comfort  the 
feeble-minded,  support  the  weak,  be  patient  toward  all 
men.  See  that  none  render  evil  for  evil  unto  any  man ; 
but  ever  follow  that  which  is  good,  both  among  yourselves, 
and  to  all  men. — 1  Thes.  v.  13 — 15. 

Yet  count  him  not  as  an  enemy,  but  admonish  him  as 
a  brother. — 2  Thes.  iii.  15. 

Now  the  end  of  the  commandment  is  charity  out  of  a 
pure  heart,  and  of  a  good  conscience,  and  of  faith  un- 
feigned.— 1  Tim.  i.  5. 

If  ye  fulfil  the  royal  law  according  to  the  scripture, 
Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself,  ye  do  well. — - 
James  ii.  8. 

If  a  brother  or  sister  be  naked,  and  destitute  of  datly 
food,  and  one  of  you  say  unto  them.  Depart  in  peace,  be 
ye  warmed  and  filled ;  notwithstanding  ye  give  them  not 
those  things  which  are  needful  to  the  body;  what  doth  it 
profit? — James  ii.  15,  16. 

But  the  wisdom  that  is  from  above  is  first  pure,  then 


TEACHINGS    OF   THE    APOSTLES.  55 


peaceable,  gentle,  and  easy  to  be  entreated,  full  of  mercy 
and  good  fruits,  without  partiality,  and  without  hypo- 
crisy.— James  iii.  17. 

Behold,  the  hire  of  the  labourers  who  have  reaped  down 
your  fields,  which  is  of  you  kept  back  by  fraud,  crieth ; 
and  the  cries  of  them  which  have  reaped  are  entered  into 
the  ears  of  the  Lord  of  Sabaoth.— James  v.  4. 

Seeing  ye  have  purified  your  souls  in  obeying  the  truth 
through  the  Spirit  unto  unfeigned  love  of  the  brethren, 

see  that  ye  love  one  another  with  a  pure  heart  fervently 

1  Pet  i.  22. 

Honour  all  men.  Love  the  brotherhood.  Fear  God. 
Honour  the  king.— 1  Pet.  ii.  17. 

* 

Finally,  be  ye  all  of  one  mind,  having  compassion  one 
of  another ;  love  as  brethren,  be  pitiful,  be  courteous  :  not 
rendering  evil  for  evil,  or  railing  for  railing :  but  contra- 
riwise, blessing;  knowing  that  ye  are  thereunto  called, 
that  ye  should  inherit  a  blessing.  For  he  that  will  love 
life,  and  see  good  days,  let  him  refrain  his  tongue  from 
evil,  and  his  lips  that  they  speak  no  guile.— 1  Pe^.  iii. 
8—10. 

And  above  all  things  have  fervent  charity  among  your- 
selves :  for  charity  shall  cover  the  multitude  of  sins.  Use 
hospitality  one  to  another  without  grudging.  As  every 
man  hath  received  the  gift,  even  so  minister  the  same  one 
to  another,  as  good  stewards  of  the  manifold  grace  of 
Qodi.—lPct.  iv.  8—10. 


56  TEACHINGS    OF   THE   APOSTLES. 


And  besides  this,  giving  all  diligence,  add  to  your  faith, 
virtue  ;  and  to  virtue,  knowledge ;  and  to  knowledge,  tem- 
perance; and  to  temperance,  patience;  and  to  patience, 
godliness;  and  to  godliness,  brotherly-kindness;  and  to 
brotherly-kindness,  charity. — 2  Pet.  i.  5 — 7. 

He  that  saith  he  is  in  the  light,  and  hateth  his  brother, 
is  in  darkness  even  until  now.  He  that  loveth  his  brother 
abideth  in  the  light,  and  there  is  none  occasion  of  stum- 
bling in  him.  But  he  that  hateth  his  brother  is  in  dark- 
ness, and  walketh  in  darkness,  and  knoweth  not  whither 
he  goeth,  because  that  darkness  hath  blinded  his  eyes. — 
1  JoJui  ii.  9 — 11. 

For  this  is  the  message  that  ye  heard  from  the  begin- 
ning, that  we  should  love  one  another. — 1  JoJm  iii.  11. 

We  know  that  we  have  passed  from  death  unto  life,  be- 
cause we  love  the  brethren.  He  that  loveth  not  his 
brother,  abideth  in  death. — 1  John  iii.  14. 

But  whoso  hath  this  world's  good,  and  seeth  his  brother 
have  need,  and  shutteth  up  his  bowels  of  compassion  from 
him,  how  dwelleth  the  love  of  God  in  him.  My  little 
children,  let  us  not  love  in  word,  neither  in  tongue,  but 
in  deed  and  in  truth. — 1  John  iii.  17, 18. 

And  this  is  his  commandment ;  That  we  should  believe 
on  the  name  of  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  and  love  one  another, 
as  he  gave  us  commandment. — 1  John  iii.  23. 

Beloved,  let  us  love  one  another :  for  love  is  of  G-od ; 


TEACHINGS    OF   THE   APOSTLES.  57 


and  every  one  that  loveth  is  born  of  God,  and  knowetli 
God.  He  that  loveth  not,  knoweth  not  God ;  for  God  is 
love. — 1  Jolm  iv.  7;  8. 

Beloved,  if  God  so  loved  us,  we  ought  also  to  love  one 
another.  No  man  hath  seen  God  at  any  time.  If  we 
love  one  another,  God  dwelleth  in  uS;  and  his  love  is  per- 
fected in  us. — 1  Jolm  iv.  11,  12. 

And  we  have  known  and  believed  the  love  that  God 
hath  to  us.  God  is  love  :  and  he  that  dwelleth  in  love, 
dwelleth  in  God,  and  God  in  him. — 1  John  iv.  16. 

If  a  man  say,  I  love  God,  and  hateth  his  brother,  he  is 
a  liar.  For  he  that  loveth  not  his  brother,  whom  he  hath 
seen,  how  can  he  love  God,  whom  he  hath  not  seen  ? 
And  this  commandment  have  we  from  him,  That  he  who 
loveth  God,  love  his  brother  also. — 1  John  iv.  20,  21. 

By  this  we  know  that  we  love  the  children  of  God, 
when  we  love  God,  and  keep  his  commandments.  For 
this  is  the  love  of  God,  that  we  keep  his  commandments  ; 
and  his  commandments  are  not  grievous. — 1  John  v.  2,  3. 

We  trust  that  these  quotations,  which  are 
only  a  portion  of  what  can  be  adduced  to  the 
same  purport,  have  not  proved  tedious."^ 

*  We  have  deemed  it  right  to  place  these  passages  before  the 
reader,  in  place  of  sending  him  to  the  sacred  volume  whence  they 
are  taken,  as  they  can  be  read  in  less  time  than  their  places  can  be 
found. 


58  WHERE  ARE    SUCH   CHRISTIANS? 


Should  not  tliese  passages,  taken  in  gross 
and  in  detail,  awaken  inquiries  of  vital  im- 
port ?  Where  is  the  Christianity  which  they 
jDrescribe?  Where  are  the  Christians  who 
receive  these  instructions  and  obey  them? 
Where  are  those  people  whose  charity  is 
greater  than  that  faith  which  could  remove 
mountains — more  liberal  than  that  bounty 
which  bestows  all  its  goods  to  feed  the  poor, 
and  more  self-sacrificing  than  his  devotion 
who  gives  his  body  to  martyrdom  ? — Whose 
charity  never  fails — bearing  all  things,  be- 
lieving all  things,  hoping  all  things,  enduring 
all  things ;  whose  love  is  without  dissimula- 
tion ;  in  honour  preferring  one  another ;  who 
bless  them  which  persecute — bless  and  curse 
not ;  who  feed  their  enemies ;  who  bear  one 
another's  burdens;  who  let  not  the  sun  go 
down  upon  their  wrath ;  who  put  away  all 
bitterness  and  wrath,  and  clamour,  and  evil 
speaking,  with  all  malice  ?  Where  are  those 
Christians  who,  having  this  world's  goods, 
never  shut  up  their  bowels  of  comj)assion 


THE   PEOPLE   OP   CHRISTENDOM.  59 


when  they  see  their  brothers  have  need  ?  The 
sufferings  and  utter  destitution  of  the  millions 
upon  millions  of  the  poor  throughout  rich 
Christendom;  the  strife,  and  clamour,  and  evil 
speaking,  ambition,  jealousy,  bitterness,  ma- 
lice, oppression,  wars,  and  perpetual  struggles 
for  power,  wealth,  and  precedence,  furnish  a 
reply  to  these  inquiries. 

What  do  we  see,  then,  in  Christendom? 
Civilization,  arts,  sciences,  knowledge ;  a  vast 
complication  of  church  machinery  to  keep 
men  in  the  traces  of  sectarianism ;  a  vast  ac- 
cumulation of  duties  to  be  performed;  of 
things  to  be  said  and  done ;  of  yokes  to  be 
carried ;  of  doctrines  to  be  understood  and  be- 
lieved; of  traditions,  glosses,  comments,  ex- 
planations :  a  vast  array  of  biblical  learning 
and  criticism,  in  which  every  word  is  ex- 
amined, weighed,  and  defined.  We  have 
creeds,  confessions,  liturgies,  prayer-books, 
catechisms,  forms  and  platforms  of  faith  and 
discipline.  We  have  councils,  conventions, 
synods,  and  assemblies,  and  other  ecclesiasti- 


/ 


60  WHERE   IS   TnEIR   CHARITY   SEEN  ? 


cal  bodies  without  number.  We  have  sacra- 
ments^ ordinances,  ceremonies,  observances 
without  limit.  We  have  bishops,  priests, 
ministers,  preachers,  and  teachers.  We  have 
congregations,  schools,  colleges,  and  semina- 
ries. We  have  costly  temples  and  palaces 
built  for  Him  who  dwelleth  not  in  temples 
made  with  men's  hands.  We  have  assem- 
blages of  infinite  variety  for  religious  pur- 
poses. We  have  thousands  upon  thousands 
of  volumes  of  religious  books ;  but  where  is 
our  Christianity  ?  for  all  these  things  do  not 
constitute  us  followers  of  Christ.  Where  is 
the  exemplification  of  that  charity  without 
which  all  these  things  are  mere  sounding 
brass  and  tinkling  cymbals  ?  In  w^hat  city 
is  the  "gospel  preached  to  the  poor?"  In 
what  country  are  the  poor  such  special  ob- 
ject of  care  and  attention  on  the  part  of 
Christians,  as  is  contemplated  by  the  teach- 
ings of  Christ  and  his  discij^les?  This  is  not 
merely  feeding  and  clothing  the  poor ;  for  if 
you  give  all  your  goods  for  this  purj)Ose,  it 


WHAT    OF    ALL    THIS    MACHINERY.  61 


does  not  meet  the  requirements  of  Christian 
charity.  All  such  exterior  manifestations 
of  Christianity  as  are  above  enumerated  are, 
in  the  best  sense,  merely  means  to  an  end. 
Where,  we  ask,  are  the  results  of  this  immense 
and  costly  paraphernalia  of  Christianity  ?  Is 
there  not  reason  to  inquire  if  the  essence  of 
true  religion  has  not  been  crushed,  repelled, 
and  sometimes  wholly  extinguished,  under 
this  load  ?  Compare  all  this  mass  of  Christian 
machinery  with  the  extreme  simplicity  of 
that  example  in  practice  and  teaching  which 
is  left  for  our  instruction  by  Him  who  could 
"speak  as  never  man  spake."  Yfhile  we 
adhere  so  closely  to  the  letter,  let  us  not  be 
in  danger  of  perishing  in  the  letter.  Know- 
ledge will  not  save  us :  while  we  rely  on  the 
Bible  as  an  instructor,  let  us  not  trust  in  it  as 
a  Saviour. 

While  one  portion  of  nominal  Christians 
have  busied  themselves  with  forms  and  cere- 
monies, and  observances,  with  pictures,  images, 
and  processions;  others  have  given  to  doc- 


62  CREEDS    AND    CONFESSIONS. 


trines  the  supremacy^  and  have  busied  tliem- 
selves  ill  laying  down  the  lines  by  which  to 
enforce  human  belief, — lines  of  interpretation, 
by  which  to  control  human  opinion, — lines 
of  discipline  and  restraint,  by  which  to  bring 
human  minds  to  uniformity  of  faith  and 
action ;  they  have  formed  creeds  and  cate- 
chisms,— they  have  spread  themselves  over 
the  whole  field  of  the  sacred  w^ritings,  and 
scratched  up  all  the  surface, — tliey  have  gather- 
ed all  the  straws  and  turned  over  all  the 
pebbles,  and  detected  the  colour  and  deter- 
mined the  outline  of  every  stone  and  tree  and 
shrub;  they  have  dwelt  with  rapture  upon 
all  that  was  beautiful  and  sublime,  but  they 
have  trampled  over  mines  of  golden  wisdom, 
of  surpassing  richness  and  depth,  almost 
without  a  thought,  and  almost  without  an 
effort  to  fathom  these  priceless  treasures, 
much  less  to  take  possession  of  them. 

In  what  part  of  Christendom  is  Christian 
charity  occupying  that  space  in  the  teachings 
of  the  schools  or  churches,  or  in  the  works  of 


WHAT    IT    IS    TO    BELIEVE    IN    CHRIST.  63 


the  people,  which  we  perceive  to  be  occupied 
by  other  things  in  the  two  classes  above-men- 
tioned ?  Where  are  men  found  as  anxiously 
bent  on  fulfilling  the  duties  of  loving  God 
and  loving  their  neighbour  as  they  are  in 
other  things  pertaining  in  their  estimation  to 
religion  ?  We  hear  far  more  of  the  sufferings 
of  Christ,  of  the  redemption  wrought  out  for 
us,  of  the  atonement,  of  the  vicarious  sacri- 
fice, of  the  law  fulfilled  in  our  behalf,  of  his 
rio;hteousness  in  w^hich  we  are  exhorted  to 
clothe  ourselves,  of  his  blood  shed  for  us  in 
which  we  are  to  wash  and  be  clean ;  of  the 
cross  at  the  foot  of  wdiich  we  must  lie  until  • 
we  are  purified  by  the  sacrifice  there  accom- 
plished for  us,  than  we  do  of  all  the  precepts 

and  all  the  example  of  Christ.     To   have  1 

...    1 
faith  in  Christ  implies  not  only  belief  in  his 

atonement,  in  his  redemption,   in  his  fulfil- 

ment  of  the  law,  in  tlif  shedding  of  his  blood,    / 

in  his  personal  sufferings,  but  in  his  ministry,  ^ 

teaching,  and  example.     It  is  not  enough  to 

say,  Lord,  Lord  5    we  are  not  his  followers 


64   THE    MESSAGE    OE    CHRIST   AND    HIS    OFFICES. 


unless  we  walk  in  his  footsteps ;  we  are  not 
his  believers  if  we  do  not  believe  Avhat  he 
taught  and  imitate  what  he  did.  He  came 
into  this  world  and  assumed  our  nature^  not 
merely  to  accomplish  his  various  offices,  but 

to  be  the  bearer  of  a  message  the  most  be- 

* 

nign  and  pure  which  has  ever  greeted  the  ears 
of  man.  Can  we  claim  the  benefit  of  his 
exj)iatorj  sacrifice  while  we  forget  his  mes- 
sage or  treat  it  with  contempt  ?  Can  we  be 
saved  by  the  offices  of  Christ,  if  we  receive 
not  the  instructions  of  Christ? 

We  must  refrain  from  entering  further  into 
this  branch  of  the  subject  until  we  have  com- 
pleted our  historical  survey.  We  have  noticed 
the  instructions  of  Christ  and  his  apostles, 
and  also  their  example:  it  may  be  worth 
while  to  notice,  however  slightly,  the  usages 
of  Christians  in  the  early  and  middle  ages  of 
Christianity  under  th€;^e  instructions,  before 
we  come  to  compare  them  with  the  practices 
of  the  present  day. 


65 


CHARITY  AMONG  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS. 

A  HISTORY  of  Christian  charity  in  the  first 
ages  of  Christianity  is  deserving  of  volumes : 
it  is  possible  now  merely  to  sketch  a  few  promi- 
nent features.  Our  Saviour  found  slavery 
an  established  institution  in  the  world.  In- 
consistent as  that  relation  may  appear  with 
his  teachings,  he  utters  not  one  syllable  of 
reproach  against  it,  or  against  slaveholders  as 
such.  He  publishes  the  law  of  love ;  he  lays 
down  the  rule  of  doing  unto  others  as  we 
would  have  others  do  unto  us;  both  which 
are  as  binding  on  the  slave  as  on  the  master. 
Upon  the  operation  of  these  Christian  prin- 
ciples he  relies  for  the  abolition  of  slavery. 
Before  the  advent  of  Christianity,  no  axe  had 
ever  been  laid  at  the  root  of  slavery;  no  plii- 
losoj^her  had  denounced  it,  and  it  does  not 

appear  to  have  been  considered  by  any  as  an 

6-^ 


v^ 


66  CHRISTIANITY   AND    SLAVERY. 


evil  to  be  repressed.  Nor  did  the  apostles 
teach  differently,  but  distinctly  laid  down 
rules  for  the  conduct  of  master  and  slave; 
thereby  clearly  recognising  the  relation,  with- 
out denouncing  it  as  in  itself  sinful.  Their 
Master's  instructions  were  intended  to  make 
men  what  they  should  be,  and  then  every 
institution,  every  law,  and  every  practice 
inconsistent  with  that  state,  would  fall  before 
it.  If  a  community  of  slaveholders,  under 
Christian  instruction,  were  gradually  tending 
to  the  point  of  general  emancipation,  both 
masters  and  slaves  would  gradually  be  fitting 
for  so  great  a  change  in  their  relative  condi- 
tion. It  would  be  a  subject  of  great  interest 
to  trace,  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity,  its 
influences  upon  the  institution  of  slavery, 
so  much  in  contrast  with  the  movements  or 
influences  of  paganism.  During  the  first  four 
or  ^ve  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  eman- 
cipation of  slaves  by  converts  to  Christianity 
took  place  upon  a  large  and  progressively 
increasing   scale,   and    continued    until    the 


EMANCIPATION.  67 


occurrence  of  political  eventSj  the  invasion 
of  barbarians,  and  other  causes,  agitated  the 
whole  Christian  world  and  shook  the  very 
foundations  of  the  social  systems  in  which 
Christianity  had  made  most  progress.  When 
Christianity  sank  into  the  darkness  of  the 
middle  ages,  the  progress  of  emancipation 
ceased,  because  the  influence  which  produced 
it  ceased  during  that  period  to  operate.  The 
annals  of  emancipation  in  these  primitive 
ages,  if  materials  were  extant  for  a  full  narra- 
tive, would  be  of  extraordinary  interest,  and 
w^ould  fully  reveal  the  effects  of  our  Saviour's 
precepts  when  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
hearts  of  men  in  their  true  spirit,  even  where 
the  letter  did  not  apply.  Under  paganism, 
slavery  could  never  come  to  an  end :  under 
the  continual  light  of  Christianitj^,  it  hastens 
to  an  inevitable  end,  but  by  that  progress - 
and  in  that  mode  which  is  best  both  for  mas- 
ter and  slave;  both  being  bound  to  love  each 
other  until  the  door  of  emancipation  is  fully 
open  without  injury  to  either. 


68  CAPTIVES    IN   WAR. 


The  ranks  of  the  slaves^  in  the  early  period 
in  review,  v^^ere  constantly  replenished  by 
captives  taken  in  the  continual  wars  of  that 
time.  One  of  the  marked  characteristics  of 
Christian  kindness  is  seen  in  the  liberality 
exercised  in  ransoming  from  slavery  its  con- 
stant recruits.  In  many  cases,  whole  com- 
munities were  impoverished  by  their  efforts 
in  this  way,  and  instances  are  not  wanting 
in  which  men  sold  themselves  into  slavery 
to  procure  the  means  of  redeeming  others.'^* 
When  Genseric  took  and  pillaged  Rome,  he 
carried  off  a  host  of  its  best  citizens  as  cap- 
tives, and  landed  them  at  Carthage,  in  Africa, 
where,  husbands  being  sej^arated  from  wives, 
and  parents  from  children,  they  were  sold 
into  bondage.  Christians  at  Rome  sent  after 
their  unhappy  brethren  all  the  means  they 
could  command  towards  their  redemption 
and  relief  3  but  the  prisoners  found  Christians 
in  Africa.      Deogratias,  bishop  of  Carthage, 


*  Epistle  of  Clement  to  the  Corinthians. 


THE    KIND   BISHOP    OF    CAETIIAGE.  69 


gave  himself  at  once  to  the  work  of  succour- 
hig  these  slaves  of  Vandals  and  Moors.  To 
prevent  separation  of  families,  he  purchased 
a  large  number  of  them.  The  churches  of 
Carthage  were  fitted  up  with  beds  and  furni- 
ture, and  became  the  habitations  and  hospitals 
of  those  who  we're  the  descendants  of  the 
former  enemies  of  that  city.  To  meet  this 
great  expense,  the  gold  and  silver  ornaments 
and  vessels  of  the  churches  were  sold.  Medi- 
cal attendance  and  nursing  were  liberally 
bestowed  upon  the  numerous  sick.  The  good 
bishop  day  and  night  gave  his  personal  super- 
intendence and  aid  to  this  great  and  good 
w^ork,  and  this  under  the  weight  of  a  feeble 
old  aore.* 

The  origin  of  the  monastic  system  was 
charity.  Many  of  those  who  felt  impelled 
by  the  Saviour's  injunction,  "Go  sell  that 
thou  hast  and  give  to  the  poor,"  united  them- 
selves  for   facility   of  support,    and   formed 

*  A.  D.  455. 


70  EARLY    MONASTIC    SYSTEM. 


houses  of  charity  for  each  other,  and  for  all 
whom  they  could  help.  Their  doors  were 
open  to  all  strangers,  to  the  sick,  and  to  all 
w^ho  asked  their  aid.  Many  carried  their 
worldly  possessions  to  these  establishments, 
and  there  they  were  dispensed  for  the  general 
object  of  the  association. 

The  more  these  institutions  were  managed 
in  the  spirit  of  true  Christian  charity,  the 
more  popular  they  became ;  and  large  gifts 
and  bequests  were  poured  upon  them  to  assist 
in  their  charitable  enterprises.  The  value  of 
such  gifts  for  charitable  uses  made  in  these 
early  times  cannot  now  be  told ;  and  if  they 
could,  the  amount  would  be  deemed  incredi- 
ble. The  administrators  of  these  houses 
of  charity,  who  in  their  origin  laboured 
with  their  own  hands  in  their  communities 
for  their  support  and  for  the  means  of  suc- 
couring others,  were  in  the  end  overwhelmed 
by  the  amount  of  those  benefactions  which 
the  zeal  of  Christians  for  charity  showered 
upon  them.     It  is  but  little  from  the  mark  to 


PROPERTY    OF   THE    ROMAN    CHURCH.  71 


sajj  that  all  the  property  held  by  the  Roman 
church  and  her  ecclesiastics,  if  we  except  her 
temples,  was  given  purely  for  charitable  pur- 
poses. It  was  given  to  feed  the  hungry,  to 
clothe  the  naked,  to  redeem  the  captive,  to 
aid  in  the  cure  and  care  of  the  sick,  the 
infirm,  the  halt  and  the  blind,  and  for  the  sup- 
port of  a  generous  hospitality.  Where  these 
houses  were  found,  and  they  were  once  densely 
strewed  through  Christendom,  the  poor  were 
never  witjiout  a  resource  for  every  want,  and 
the  stranger  never  at  a  loss  for  a  home.  The 
history  of  these  houses,  in  the  days  of  their 
purity,  is  greatly  needed  as  a  practical  expo- 
sition of  charity  by  the  first  Christians. 

When  the  plague  raged  in  Alexandria,  in 
the  time  of  the  Emperor  Galhanus,  Christians 
distinguished  themselves,  in  contrast  with  the 
pagan  population,  by  their  undaunted  courage 
and  persevering  care  for  the  sick,  dying,  and 
dead.  They  omitted  no  duty  and  fled  from 
no  contact  in  the  care  of  those  labouring 
under  the  frightful  malady,  in  closing  the 


72  HOSPITALS. 


eyes  of  the  expiring,  in  cleansing  the  bodies 
of  the  dead,  and  in  carrying  them  to  their 
graves;  and  as  fast  as  the  ranks  of  those 
thus  exposed  were  thinned  by  death,  others 
stepped  in  to  fill  their  places.  These  sacri- 
fices were  made  not  only  for  Christian  brethren, 
but  for  the  heathen,  who  were  deserted  by 
their  own  families,  and  left  to  die  without  a 
single  attendant,  in  the  street  as  well  as  in 
the  houses,  and  their  bodies  to  go  unhearsed 
and  unburied.  ^ 

Hospitals  were,  in  those  early  ages,  made 
an  appendage  of  Christian  churches.  There 
cannot  be  a  doubt  that  Christians  fully  re- 
lieved all  their  own  poor,  and  very  many  of 
the  pagan  poor  besides.  There  is  on  record. 
the  testimony  of  an  enemy,  to  the  fact.  The 
Emperor  Julian,  one  of  the  bitterest  enemies 
of  Christianity,  provoked  by  the  good  works 
of  Christians,  thus  instructs  one  of  his 
pagan  priests  :  "  Establish  hospitals  in  every 
town,  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the  enter- 
tainment of  strangers,  and  for  extending  the 


EMPEROR    JULIAN    ON   THE    TOOR.  73 


cares  of  humanity  to  all  that  are  poor.  I  will 
furnish  the  means.  For  it  is  a  shame  for  us 
that  no  Jew  ever  begs^  and  that  the  impious 
Galileans  should  not  only  keep  their  own 
poor^  but  even  many  of  ours,  whom  we  leave 
to  suffer."  To  another  he  writes  thus :  "  The 
impious  GalileanSj  having  observed  that  our 
priests  neglect  the  poor,  have  applied  them- 
selves to  that  work :  and  like  those  who 
would  steal  our  children  to  sell  them,  they 
attract  them  by  offering  cakes ;  and  so  they 
have  led  our  faithful  ones  into  infidelity,  by 
commencing  with  charity,  hospitality,  and 
the  service  of  tables,  for  they  have  many 
names  for  these  works,  which  they  practise 
abundantly."  This  testimony  is  of  great 
value  in  showing  the  customs  of  Christians 
in  those  days,  and  the  nature  of  that  teaching 
by  example,  which  not  only  commanded  the 
admiration  of  an  enemy,  but  compelled  an 
emperor  to  follow  it,  in  pure  defence,  lest  the 
hearts  of  his  subjects  should  be  stolen  from 
him.    Very  many  proofs  of  this  charity  could 


74  CONSTANTINE   AND   FLACILLA. 


be  adduced  from  the  conduct  of  Christians  in 
diiferent  parts  of  the  world ;  but  the  evidence 
of  Julian  is  ample  enough  for  his  day. 

The  Emperor  Constantine  followed  this 
good  example^  not  from  rivalry^  but  because 
he  was  a  Christian.  "  He  poured  out  his  alms 
liberally  both  upon  Christian  and  Pagan.  To 
the  public  beggars  he  gave  both  food  and 
clothing;  he  assisted  generously  those  who 
had  fallen  from  a  better  condition ;  giving  to 
some,  pensions ;  to  others,  lucrative  offices.  He 
took  especial  care  of  widows  and  orphans, 
giving  their  daughters  in  marriage  to  rich 
men,  known  by  himself  to  be  worthy."* 

The  Empress  Flacilla,  wife  of  Theodosius, 
made  the  care  of  the  poor  her  chief  occupa- 
tion, to  serve  whom  she  undertook  any  office, 
however  degrading.  A  letter  from  an  emi- 
nent Christian  to  King  Clovis  contains  this 
passage  : — "  Be  the  father  and  protector  of 
your  people ;  lighten  their  burdens  as  much 
as  is  consistent  with  the  necessary  wants  of 

*  Eusebius,  Life  of  Constantine. 


TREASURES  OF  THE  PRIMITIVE    CHRISTIANS.      75 


your  government.  Console  and  relieve  the 
poor ;  nourish  orphans ;  take  care  of  widows ; 
permit  no  oppression.  Let  the  door  of  your 
palace  be  ever  open,  that  every  one  of  your 
subjects  may  be  able  to  claim  justice  at  your 
hands." 

A  better  idea  cannot,  perhaps,  be  given  of 
the  sentiments  of  early  Christians  on  this  sub- 
ject, than  is  furnished  by  an  incident  which 
occurred  in  Kome.  The  liberality  shown  to 
the  poor  had  led  a  Roman  officer,  in  the 
days  of  persecution,  to  believe  that  Christians 
had  great  treasures  at  their  command.  Lau- 
rentius,  one  of  the  deacons  or  guardians  of  the 
poor,  was  commanded  by  the  Eoman  Prefect 
to  deliver  up  the  treasures  of  the  church.  He 
demanded  three  days  to  comply  with  the  re- 
quisition. In  that  time  he  collected  from  the 
whole  city  all  the  poor  taken  care  of  by  Chris- 
tian benevolence,  and  having  assembled, 
in  the  courts  and  porches  of  one  of  their 
churches,  the  immense  multitude  of  the  aged, 
infirm,  lame,  blind,  diseased,  destitute  poor 


76      THE  POOR  THE  TREASURES  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


wlio  received  constant  aid  from  the  hands  of 
Christians,  he  called  upon  the  prefect  and  said, 
"  Come  see  the  treasm^es  of  om^  God ;  you  shall 
see  a  great  court  full  of  vessels  of  gold,  and 
talents  are  heaped  up  in  porches."  The  Pre- 
fect followed,  and  was  shown  the  assembled 
poor.  "  Behold  the  treasures  I  promised  you. 
I  add  to  these  the  widow^s  and  orphans ;  they 
are  our  pearls  and  precious  stones,  the  crown 
of  the  church.  Take  this  wealth  for  Kome. 
for  the  emperor,  and  for  yourself."* 

These  few^  incidents  speak  far  from  ade- 
quately, but  still  strongly,  the  opinion  of  pri- 
mitive Christianity  on  the  subject  of  practical 
charity.  We  cannot  reach  our  own  time, 
however,  without  traversing  a  period  during 
mediaeval  ages,  when,  by  a  slow  but  sure  pro- 
cess of  corruption,  Christianity,  overcome  by 
forms,  ceremonies,  and   superstitions,   sank, 

*  These  incidents  are  taken  from  Histoire  de  la  Charity  pendant 
les  quatre  premiers  Si^cles  de  Vhre  Chr^tienne,  par  Martin-Doisy. 
The  subject  of  the  charity  of  early  Christians  is  treated  in  some 
detail,  in  Cave's  Primitive  Christianity,  part  3,  chap.  2. 


DECLENSION   OF    CHRISTIANITY.  77 


gradually,  into  all  the  abuses  of  Eoman  Pa- 
pacy. Priestly  power  and  dignity  usurped 
the  place  of  apostolic  simplicity  and  teaching ; 
political  sway  and  ambition  were  substituted 
for  ministerial  labours  devoted  mainly  to  the 
spiritual  welfare  of  men's  souls.  Those  w^ho 
claimed  to  be  successors  of  Peter,  the  fisher- 
man of  Galilee,  who  followed  a  master  who 
had  not  where  to  lay  his  head,  grasped  a 
kingly  rule  and  swayed  a  spiritual  sceptre : 
those  who  claimed  to  be  the  special  delegates 
of  the  meek  and  lowly  Jesus,  who  had  neither 
house  nor  home,  nor  bishopric,  nor  church, 
w^ho  refused  all  particijDation  in  temporal  af- 
fairs, who  would  neither  punish  the  guilty 
woman,  nor  assum^e  the  distribution  of  an  in- 
heritance, nor  be  judge  nor  ruler  over  any  one, 
but  who  enjoined  submission  to  the  civil  au- 
ihorities,  claimed  and  exercised  lordship  over 
kings  and  emperors,  and  gave  themselves  out 
as  the  source  of  all  power  in  Christendom. 

Herein  lies  the  explanation  of  the  sad  de- 
clension of  Christianity  in  this  unhappy  pe- 


78  POWER    AND    PIETY    INCOMPATIBLE. 


riod.    The  purity  of  the  early  Christian  minis- 
try inspired  confidence  :  confidence  led  many 
to  commit  important  trusts  to  them,  as  the 
most  worthy  and  the  most  enlightened :  the 
execution  of  these   trusts   gave   power   and 
patronage  :  the  exercise  of  power  and  patron- 
age proved  a  source  of  corruption  and  ruin. 
'/    The  most  dangerous  foes  of  Christianity  are 
wealth   and  power:  the  human  heart  is  so 
little  proof  against  these  enemies,  that  it  has 
always  yielded  to  their  influence.  Christianity 
was  founded  in  poverty  and  worldly  weak- 
ness;   it   cannot   be   reared  nor  flourish   in 
worldly  splendour  or  in  regal  rule.    He  who 
taught  that  it  was  easier  for  a  camel  to  pass 
throuerh  the  eve  of  a  needle  than  for  a  rich 
man  to  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  God,  meant 
what  he  said — that  no  rich  man,  in  his  own 
strength,  can  turn  from  his  riches  and  be- 
come his  disciple.     Riches  are  so  many  grap- 
jdIcs  which  hold  men  to  this  world ;  and  grap- 
ples they  are  which  the  men  who  have  forged 
them  cannot  break  without  aid  from  on  hidi. 


LIBERALITY   OF    EARLY    CHRISTIANS.  79 


Yet  Christian  ministers  absorbed  and  brought 
under  their  administration  during  the  middle 
ages  a  large  proportion  of  the  wealth  of  the 
world.  Christ  said,  "  Sell  that  thou  hast,  and 
give  to  the  poor ;"  these  ministers  of  his  said, 
"  Bring  in  your  offerings  to  us,  and  we  will 
feed  the  poor."  Under  this  stimulus,  the  of- 
ferings of  the  people  poured  in  upon  the  priest- 
hood in  a  profusion  which  proved  how  deeply 
Christian  charity  had  taken  hold  of  the  minds 
of  men.  Christian  ministers  were  not  long'^ 
proof  under  the  corrupting  tendencies  of  this 
fatal  error,  and  Christianity  sank  into  a  de- 
gradation of  more  than  a  thousand  years,  and 
into  a  neglect  of  charity  visible  in  all  subse- 
quent history. 

No  doubt.  Christians  as  a  church,  or  in  their 
special  organizations,  are  bound  to  administer 
wisely  and  faithfully  such  charities  as  are  com- 
mitted to  them;  but  they  should  regard 
such  trusts  as  dangerous  to  the  welfare  of 
churches,  and  they  should  not  encourage  indi- 
viduals in  their  creation,  but  endeavour  to  dif- 


80  CHURCHES   NOT    PROPER    ALMONERS. 


fuse  that  light  and  spirit  which  enables  every 
individual  Christian  to  become  a  faithful 
steward  of  that  which  is  in  his  hands,  under 
the  great  law  of  charity.  Even  when  indi- 
viduals have  done  all  in  their  power  to  carry 
out  Christian  duties,  much  must  still  devolve 
upon  some  public  administration.     This  will 

be  as  much  as  human  weakness  can  perform 

#\     

with  safety  and  success.  That  the  papal 
practice  of  making  the  church  the  grand 
almoner  of  all  its  members  is  radically  wrong, 
is  plain  from  all  past  results;  it  is  clearly 
wrong,  because  human  virtue  cannot  be  proof 
against  the  temptations  incident  to  such  an 
administration;  it  is  clearly  wrong,  because 
not  according  to  the  teachings  of  Christ,  who 
undertook  no  such  offices.  It  is  very  ap- 
parent in  many  of  the  passages  above  quoted, 
that  Christ's  plan  in  the  exercise  of  charity, 
contemplates  more  the  spiritual  good  of  him 
who  exercises  charity  than  of  him  who  is  its 
object.  The  poor  are  the  objects  of  many 
promises  and  of  much  providential  care  and 


THE   BENEFIT   OF   ALMS   TO    THE    GIVER.         81 


bounty :  they  have  little  to  tie  them  to  this 
world,  and  therefore  are  the  more  readily  in- 
duced to  Rx  their  aflfections  upon  things  above, 
and  to  look  to  the  future  world  as  a  final  home 
and  place  of  rest.    They  are  more  likely  to  be 
"  poor  in  spirit;'  to  "  mourn/'  to  be  "  meek," 
to  "  hunger  and  thirst  after  righteousness,"  to 
be  "merciful,"  to  be  "pure  in  heart,"  to  be 
"peacemakers,"  to  be  "persecuted  for  righte- 
ousness' sake,"  to  be  "reviled,  and  to  have  all 
manner  of  evil  spoken  of  them  falsely;"  and 
they  are,  of  course,  the  more  likely  to  enjoy 
the  blessings  promised  to  such.     The  rich  in 
this  world's  goods  must  look  upon  the  poor 
and  the  suffering  as  the  special  objects  of  their 
stewardship :  poverty  and  pain  are  the  fields 
in  which  they  must  labour,  and  in  which  their 
graces  must  be  exercised,  and  their  Christian 
characters  formed.    It  is  not  enough  to  found  ix 
hospitals,  build  churches,  establish  monaste- 
ries—to  feed,    lodge,    and  clothe  the  poor; 
but  to  cultivate  that  "  charity,  without  which, 
if  men  bestow  all  their  goods  to  feed  the  poor 


82       CHARITY — BUT  NOT  BY  PROXY. 


and  give  their  bodies  to  be  burned,  it  profiteth 
nothing."  The  inheritance  of  the  kingdom 
prepared  for  the  blessed  from  the  foundation 
of  the  world,  is  given  to  those  who  give  meat 
to  the  hungry,  drink  to  the  thirsty ;  who  re- 
ceive strangers,  clothe  the  naked,  visit  the 
sick,  and  go  unto  those  who  are  in  prison. 
This  blessedness  is  not  proffered  to  those  who 
perform  this  duty  by  proxy.  It  is  not  pro- 
mised to  the  church,  but  to  individuals  who 
perform  these  offices  for  even  the  humblest 
of  the  human  family. 

Papal  Rome  did  not  cease  to  inculcate 
charity,  and  extol  it  as  the  highest  of  Christian 
virtues  5  but  this  she  did,  not  that  she  cared 
for  the  poor,  but  because  "  she  was  a  thief,  and 
had  the  bag,  and  bare  what  was  put  therein."* 
Like  Judas,  whose  apparent  zeal  for  the  poor 
exceeded  that  of  the  other  disciples,  his  zeal 
to  fill  his  bag  having  increased  with  the  ava- 
rice which  the  bearing  of  that  bag  had  engen- 
dered, the  papacy  preached  charity  with  in- 

*  John  xii.  6. 


WHERE  THE  CARCASS,  THERE  THE  BIRDS  OF  PREY.  83 


creasing  earnestness  when  avarice  had  become 
the  motive.  The  experience  of  the  Romish 
church  ]DJ^oved  that  where  there  is  a  bag  of 
money  to  be  held,  or  large  sums  to  be  ad- 
ministered^ a  Judas  will  creep  into  the  office. 
It  was  a  fatal  error  of  that  church  to  expose 
her  officers  to  such  manifold  temptations. 
Having  assumed  the  charge  of  such  vast 
wealth  and  the  administration  of  such  im- 
mense power^  virtue  in  priests  and  bishops 
and  popes  became  nearly  impossible.  Reli- 
gious houses  and  charitable  institutions  be-, 
came  the  scenes 'of  frightful  abuse  and  per- 
version. No  wickedness  of  this  world  has 
much  exceeded  that  which  these  abuses  have 
exhibited. 

The  history  of  the  world  proves  that  such 
power  and  such  wealth  cannot  safely  be  con- 
fided to  human  agencies.  Even  if  the  virtues 
of  those  whose  purity  of  life  has  commanded 
unlimited  confidence,  being  strengthened  from 
above,  hold  out,  their  positions  will  be  coveted, 
and  eventually  seized  by  those  whom  no  scru- 


/ 


84     ROME  KEPT  ALIVE  THE  GRACE  OF  CHARITY. 


pies  restrain.  The  true  theory  is,  to  reduce 
temptation  to  the  lowest  practicable  point,  in 
social,  political,  and  religious  life  :  enough  will 
still  remain  to  tax  all  the  energies  of  human 
virtue  and  endurance. 

When  Eome  had  assumed  the  government 
of  all  Christendom,  and  had  put  forth  every 
device  which  cunning  and  wickedness  could 
contrive  to  increase  her  power  and  to  extract 
money  from  her  votaries,  she  preached  cha- 
rity unceasingly,  as  the  great  feature  and 
characteristic  of  the  Christian  religion.  Cha- 
rity was  j^i'oclaimed  as  the  highest  of  graces 
and  the  most  pressing  of  duties.  Whilst  the 
main  object  was  to  become  the  administrators 
of  charity,  and  to  absorb  the  alms  of  the  faith- 
ful, it  happily  fell  out,  that  all  the  givers  did 
not  select  the  church  as  the  medium  of  their 
bounty,  and  that  many  actually  practised  that 
charity  which  was  chiefly  enforced  from  in- 
terested motives.  St.  Paul  says  that  some, 
even  in  his  day,  "preached  Christ  of  envy 
and  strife." — "  What  then  ? — whether  in  pre- 


BPtlGIIT    SPOTS    IN    ROMANISM.  85 


tence  or  in  truth,  Christ  is  preached.*  So 
charity  was  inculcated  during  a  long  series  of 
ages,  from  interested  motives,  and  continues 
so  to  be  enforced.  Yet  we  have  much  reason 
to  rejoice  over  this  teaching.  During  the  long 
night  of  the  dark  ages,  the  duties  of  alms- 
giving and  liberality  to  the  church  for  the 
sake  of  the  poor  being  urged  with  all  the  zeal 
of  self-interest,  was  thus  kept  before  the  minds 
and  in  the  hearts  of  men,  in  a  period  when 
almost  every  other  semblance  of  Christianity 
disappeared. 

When  the  annals  of  Charity  shall  be  fully 
written,  it  will  be  found  that  this  dark  period 
furnishes,  under  the  influence  of  Komish 
teachings,  many  as  bright  and  beautiful  exam- 
ples of  lives  devoted  to  charity  as  any  the 
world  has  ever  beheld.  The  invention  of 
works  of  supererogation  contributed,  no  doubt, 
to  form  such  characters,  and  to  stimulate  that 
perseverance  in  good  works  which  should  have 
sprung  from  a  clear  comprehension  of  the  true 


*  Phil.  i.  16,  18. 
8 


86  THE    SAINTS    OF    THE    DARK   AGES. 


plan  of  salvation.  The  corruptions  and  abuses 
of  the  Romish  church  assumed  in  this  period 
a  form  in  which  the  priesthood,  in  all  its 
grades,  must  naturally  become  ambitious,  cor- 
rupt, and  tyrannical ;  the  mass  of  the  people 
ignorant,  superstitious,  and  enslaved.  A 
few,  from  peculiar  temperament  or  accidental 
advantages,  might  stand  forth  in  the  exercise 
of  Christian  graces  of  the  highest  degree,  but 
not  unfrequently  mingled  ^vith  forbidding  aus- 
terities and  stoical  virtues  more  pagan  than 
Christian.  The  dark  ages  added  many  saints 
to  the  Eoman  calendar,  and  the  church,  which 
could  not  make  these  men  available  for  selfish 
ends  while  they  lived,  canonized  them  and 
used  them  efficiently  after  they  left  this  world. 
It  was  this  interested  devotion  to  the  subject 
of  charity  which  constituted  the  salt  by  which, 
humanly  speaking,  Christianity  was  preserved 
from  utter  suspension  during  this  lapse  of 
ages.  This  was  at  least  the  spark  which  kept 
it  alive  in  the  Romish  communion,  which,  by 
the  worship  of  saints  and  images,  had  made  a 


PERVERSIONS    OF   CHARITY.  87 


long  step  back  into  paganism.  He  who  could  - 
have  looked  upon  this  church  in  this  period, 
and  compared  its  immense  complications  of 
power  and  w^ealth,  and  wickedness,  with  the 
practices  and  teachings  of  the  great  Head  of 
Christianity,  would  have  perceived  nothing  in 
common  between  the  two  systems  but  these 
gleams  of  charity  shooting  athwart  the  vision 
in  the  vast  mass  of  papal  gloom. 

During  this  corrupt  period  the  charitable 
institutions,  which  had  multiplied  without 
number  in  the  primitive  ages  of  Christianity, 
under  an  infinity  of  names  and  organization, 
were,  to  a  great  extent,  perverted  from  their 
true  design  and  the  objects  of  the  founders. 
Monasteries,  hospitals,  religious  houses  of 
every  name  became  nests  of  lazy  drones, 
consuming  and  wasting  the  bounty  of  the 
charitable — the  patrimony  of  the  poor.  Many 
associations,  which  had  their  origin  in  a  plan 
of  joint  labour  for  the  poor,  became  sinks, 
swallowing  the  benefactions  attracted  to 
their  institutions  by  the  purity  and  industry 


88  ABUSE    OF   CHARITABLE   I2;[STITUTI0NS. 


of  tlie  early  associates.  The  richly  endowed 
establishments  which  were  to  feed  the  poor 
and  take  care  of  the  sick,  to  ransom  the  cap- 
tive, far  and  wide  around  them,  ceased  to  be 
dispensers  of  alms,  and  consumed  within 
their  own  walls  those  streams  of  plenty 
which  should  have  watered  a  wide  region. 
It  is  true,  these  houses  seldom  wholly  shut 
their  doors  against  the  poor  who  were  able 
to  reach  them,  but  the  inmates  ceased  to 
furnish  the  cup  of  cold  water  to  those  wdio 
could  not  apply,  to  visit  the  sick  and  those 
who  were  in  prison.  These  duties  were  left 
to  the  charity  of  individuals.  Not  only  were 
these  ancient  establishments  thus  perverted 
and  abused,  but  innumerable  others  w^ere 
founded,  and,  in  like  manner,  abused.  The 
mass  of  these  perversions  and  corruptions, 
became  so  great  finally,  as  to  draw  the  atten- 
tion of  all  who  had  minds  even  partially  free 
from  the  bondage  of  the  church.  They  be- 
came an  offence  to  all  such  in  Christendom. 
The  streams  which  fed  the  abuses  began  to 


S 


SALE    OF    INDULGENCES.  89 


fail,  and  charity  itself  to  fall  into  discredit. 
But  though  alms-giving  to  the  begging  poor 
was  never  given  up  among  any  Catholic  popu- 
lation, that  liberality  which  sustained  in  idle- 
ness and  debauchery  a  lazy  priesthood  was 
sensibly  checked.  This  led  at  last,  to  the 
incredibly  wicked  device  of  selling  indul- 
gences to  sin,  an  impiety  without  parallel  in 
any  other  form  of  religion,  among  any  other 
people,  or  in  any  age  of  the  world.  The 
abuses  of  the  divine  grace  of  charity  had 
opened  the  eyes  of  many  to  the  corruptions 
of  the  church :  this  sale  of  indulgences  so 
roused  their  indignation,  that  they  shook  off 
the  chains  of  superstition,  and,  becoming  free 
in  thought,  soon  determined  to  be  free  in  ac- 
tion. A  very  slight  examination,  in  this  frame 
of  mind,  betrayed  the  depths  from  which  they 
had  emerged,  and  spread  before  them  the 
vast  mass  of  benighted  humanity  held  in  the 
grasp  of  papal  power; — that  power  which 
bound  all  its  subjects  to  believe  as  it  dictated, 
to  bow  to  its  decision  in  faith  as  well  as  in 


8* 


90  FIRST    EFFECTS    OF   THE    REFORMATION. 


practice  j  which  forbade  all  freedom  of  thought 
or  speech,  and  denied  the  word  of  God  to  those 
whose  salvation  it  was  intended  to  secure; 
which  extinguished  all  thirst  for  knowledge 
and  all  independence  of  thought;  which 
robbed  God  of  his  government  and  made 
men  slaves  of  the  Church.  The  long  abuse 
of  charity  and  its  institutions  had  made 
them  a  stench  in  the  nostrils  of  those  who 
became  awakened  to  papal  usurpation.  The 
church  for  nearly  a  thousand  years  had 
merely  been  telling  her  people  what  to  do : 
the  men  who  now,  after  a  thousand  years 
of  oblivion,  had -taken  up  that  rejected  book, 
the  Bible,  and  received  it  as  the  word  of  God, 
began  to  inquire  almost  exclusively,  as  they 
emerged  from  darkness,  what  they  should 
believe.  The  intellect,  set  free  after  this  long 
inaction,  exerted  itself  with  immense  vigour. 
The  truths  of  Holy  Writ  evolved  with  great 
rapidity,  were  seized  with  avidity  by  multi- 
tudes sighing  for  emancipation  from  mental 


CONTROVERSIES    OF   THE    REFORMATION.         91 


bondage.  A  wide  field  of  inquiry  was  thus 
thrown  open,  and  hosts  of  eager  inquirers 
soon  thronged  the  area.  The  absurdities  and 
enormities  of  the  papacy  were  exposed  with- 
out mercy,  and  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel 
were  proclaimed  as  far  as  voice  and  press 
could  reach.  It  was  soon  experienced  that 
freedom  of  thought  did  not  produce  uniform- 
ity of  belief.  Strong  minds  differed  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  gospel  3  sharpened  by  the 
excitements  of  a  new  liberty,  and  impatient  of 
control,  difierences  of  opinion  gave  rise  to 
animated  controversies,  which  only  confirmed 
the  disputants  in  the  sides  they  had  taken. 
Papal  power  could  enforce  a  seeming  uniform- 
ity of  practice,  but  the  power  of  the  Reform- 
ation could  establish  no  uniformity  of  faith. 
These  differences,  which  sprang  up  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  being  magnified  in  import- 
ance by  the  special  circumstances  of  the  Re- 
formation, being  widened  by  protracted  dis- 
cussions, remain  unsettled  to  this  day ;  they 
gave  origin  to  various  sects,  which  maintain 


92  .      SECTARIAN    STRIFE. 


their  several  views  with  a  rigid  obstinacy, 
which  often  engenders  most  unchristian 
strife.  This  diversity  of  behef  and  interpre- 
tation is  an  inevitable  incident  of  free  in- 
quiry; but  the  evils  of  diversity  were  early 
felt,  and  strong  efforts  were  made,  by  the 
adoption  of  creeds,  platforms,  confessions 
of  faith,  catechisms,  and  other  devices,  to 
secure  that  unity  of  opinion  which  appeared 
to  be  wanting  to  the  reformers.  These  efforts, 
whatever  success  may  be  due  to  them,  did 
not  put  an  end  to  sectarian  controversies. 
From  the  era  of  the  Reformation  until  the 
present  time,  the  question  has  still  been.  What 
is  the  true  doctrine  ?  what  shall  we  believe  ? 
and  if  the  disputants  have  been  sects  and 
not  merely  individuals,  it  has  rendered  the 
various  sects  only  more  watchful  in  maintain- 
ing their  special  tenets,  and  in  keeping  their 
several  followers  to  the  line  of  their  various 
creeds.  The  eyes  of  Protestants  have  been 
long  and  intently  fixed  upon  these  sectarian 
lines    of    demarcation.       They   are    jealous 


SECTARIAN    ERRORS.  98 


of  their  infriiigenient  in  proportion  to  the 
heat  of  controversy,  rather  than  in  propor- 
tion to  their  importance.  They  have  become 
far  less  zealous  of  the  great  substantial  truths 
in  which  they  agree,  than  in  those  matters 
of  interpretation  and  speculation  in  which 
they  differ.  A  large  region  is  given  them  to 
cultivate,  and  they  quarrel  about  their  several 
boundaries,  while  the  land  on  each  side  runs 
to  waste.  It  is  clear  that  opinions  have,  by 
these  contests,  been  magnified  into  undue 
importance,  and  these  disputes  have  absorbed 
time  and  attention  which  belonged  to  other 
subjects.  They  have  given  a  harshness  and 
severity  of  outline  to  sectarian  differences,  at 
once  forbidding  and  unchristian.  So  long  as 
the  Word  of  God  is  taken  as  the  rule  of  life, 
and  so  long  as  men  are  permitted  to  think 
for  themselves,  so  long  there  must  be  diver- 
sities of  opinion;  but  if  the  love  of  God  and 
the  love  of  our  fellow-men,  about  which  there 
can  be  no  dispute,  be  allowed  to  exercise  their 
due  sway,  all  these  differences  will  fade  into 


94  STUDY    OF    THE    SCRIPTURES. 


insignificance^  compared  with  the  duties  to  God 
and  man  which  invoke  to  active  effort  on 
every  side.  It  is  no  more  the  province  of 
any  Protestant  denommation  to  claim  infal-* 
libihty  for  its  opinions,  than  for  the  Bishop 
of  Rome ;  and  Protestants  will  no  more  yield 
this  claim  to  each  other  than  to  the  papal  chair. 
If  we  examine  the  articles,  confessions  of  faith, 
creeds  and  catechisms  of  Protestants;  if  we 
look  into  their  controversies,  if  we  attend  their 
convocations,  conferences,  conventions,  and 
assemblies,  we  find  that  the  burden  of  the 
whole  has  been  doctrines,  theology,  and 
church  government.  In  aid  of  these  discus- 
sions, the  Scriptures  are  searched  unceasingly ; 
every  book,  chapter,  verse,  and  word*  have 
been  put  to  the  test  of  severe  examination : 
and  no  bounds  are  placed  to  the  industry 
with  which  they  are  read  and  taught,  but 
with  results  far  beneath  what  such  efforts 
should  seem  to  promise.  ^  May  not  this  study 

*  Some  have  even  counted  the  letters  in  all  the  words  of  the 
Bible. 


PROTESTANT   NEGLECT    OF    CHRIST.  95 


of  the  Scriptures  have  been  made  too  sub- 
servient to  sectarian  opinions,  and  too  little 
conducive  to  the  active  duties  of  Christian 
love  ?  It  should  be  matter  of  inquiry  how 
far  the  instructions. of  Christ  have  been  made 
the  basis  of  reformed  theology  and  religious 
teaching.  His  precepts  do  not  enter  largely 
into  creeds  nor  confessions,  catechisms  nor 
articles,  nor  are  they  prominent  in  theology 
or  religious  literature.  There  may  be  reasons 
for  this,  which  we  do  not  perceive^  but  the 
main  reasons  we  take  to  be,  those  already 
indicated  in  the  abuses  of  charity  and  its  in- 
stitutions, by  the  Romish  Church,  and  in 
the  controversies  growing  out  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, which  naturally  took  the  form  of  dis- 
putes about  what  we  should  believe,  rather 
than  what  we  should  practise  as  Christians. 
Besides  the  abuses  which  led  to  the  Reforma- 
tion, the  disruption  itself,  the  wars  which 
followed,  and  the  disputes  among  the  reformers 
were  all  unsuitable  soil  for  the  growth  of  that 


96  PROTESTANT    ERRORS   AND    OMISSIONS. 


mutual  love  and  forbearance  inculcated  by 
our  Saviour  as  the  manner  of  life  which 
characterizes  his  disciples. 


PROTESTANT  ERRORS  AND  OMISSIONS. 

We  shall  not  attempt  further  to  vindicate 
the  omissions  of  Protestant  religious  instruc- 
tion :  it  is  a  subject  too  vast  for  us  to  conceive, 
much  less  to  execute.  That  there  are  great 
omissions,  it  would  be  claiming  too  much  for 
human  imperfection  to  doubt ;  that  they  are 
of  vital  consequence  to  the  progress  of  true 
religion,  the  present  state  of  Christendom  and 
of  the  world  demonstrates.  We  cannot  at- 
tempt this  great  task,  although  we  lament 
deeply  that  Christianity  is  suffering  for  want 
of  a  vindication  which  shall  clearly  separate 
the  divine  from  the  human.  All  the  errors 
of  Eomanism  were  not  left  behind  by  those 
who  came  out  of  that  church.    The  idea  of  a 


THE   DAYS   OF   JUDAIZING    NOT    OVER.  97 


great  mysterious  organization,  a  heaven-or- 
dained corporation,  which  is  the  medium  of 
communication  between  Christ  and  his  fol- 
lowers, still  clings  to  the  minds  of  many.  The 
disposition  to  judaize,  to  "tithe  mint  and 
rue,  and  pass  over  judgment  and  the  love  of 
God,"*  has  not  been  exhausted,  but  has  been 
visible  in  every  age  since  the  days  of  the 
apostles.  "  Lading  men  with  burdens  grievous 
to  be  borne,"f  •^putting  yokes  upon  the  neck 
of  disciples,"!  has  been  done  in  modern  times, 
and  continues  to  be  done,  and  will  probably 
continue  to  be  done,  until  a  further  reforma- 
tion takes  place,  or  until  men  become  too  en- 
lightened to  be  fit  subjects  for  such  spiritual 
domination. 

To  step  in  between  the  soul  of  man  and 
his  Creator,  Redeemer,  and  Sanctifier,  to  as- 
sume the  office  of  mediator  between  them,  or 
of  arbiter  and  absolute  interpreter,  is  an  act 
of  usurpation  so  daring  and  impious  as  to  be 
incredible,  if  our  knowledge  rested  on  less  evi- 

*  Luke  xi.  42.  t  Luke  xi.  46.  J  Acts  xv.  10. 

9 


98  EACH  man's  faith  his  own. 


dence  tlian  our  own  eyes  and  ears.  This  in- 
tervention of  man  between  God  and  his  crea- 
tures,  is  not  all  confined  to  members  of  the 
papal  church.  The  assumption  is  not  strange 
in  the  Protestant  world.  The  gospel  is  to  be 
preached  to  every  creature ;  instruction  is  to  be 
given  to  every  extent  that  is  practicable ;  those 
for  whom  it  is  intended  are  to  receive  it  hum- 
bly and  teachably,  exercising  all  their  facul- 
ties to  understand  and  digest :  but  the  opinions 
then  formed;  the  faith  then  built  up,  and  the 
working  of  the  affections  then  excited,  the 
union  between  God  and  the  soul  then  formed, 
are  operations  wholly  between  God  and  his 
subject  man,  in  which  no  church  or  other  ec- 
clesiastical agency  or  office  can  have  any 
share.  The  sooner  men  are  made  to  feel,  in- 
dividually and  as  masses,  the  great  fact  that 
their  eternal  salvation  depends  not  upon  any 
church  or  form  of  religious  organization,  but 
upon  their  individual  reception  of  the  truth — 
not  upon  their  union  with  any  religious  de- 
nomination, nor  upon  their  observance  of  any 


THE   HELPS   TO    A    CHRISTIAN   LIFE.  99 


forms  or  ceremonies,  or  modes  of  worship,  but 
upon  their  individual  union  with  God  in  Christ, 
the  sooner  will  Christianity  acquire  a  new  pro- 
gress and  surmount  the  barriers  which  now 
retard  its  movements.   "When  men  fully  com- 
prehend that  the  basis  of  saving  truth  lies  in 
the  teachings  of  Christ,  and  that  all  forms  of 
worship  and  religious  observance  are  merely 
means  of  grace,  without  any  intrinsic  saving 
power,  they  will  begin  to  look  upward  at  once 
to  Him  with  whom  their  peace  is  to  be  made, 
and  then  to  their  fellow  men  of  various  Chris- 
tian organizations  for  aid,  for  instruction,  for 
encouragement,  for  discipline,  in  their  strug- 
gle to  maintain  a  Christian  life. 


THE  THIRST  OF  POWER  ALWAYS  HATEFUL,  STILL 
MORE  IN  MATTERS  OF  RELIGION. 

There  is  no  craving  of  the  human  heart 
more  strongly  written  in  human  history,  than 
that  after  power.      It  is  no  more  strongly 


100       MI&TAKEN    IDEA    AS    TO    USE    OF    POWER. 


written  in .  political  than  in  ecclesiastical 
history :  but  its  exhibitions,  hateful  and 
mischievous  everywhere^  are  still  more  so  in 
whatever  concerns  religion.  It  is  the  tendency 
of  human  nature,  exhibited  in  every  religious 
denomination,  to  obtain  all  the  power  and  in- 
fluence it  can.  This  tendency  in  the  primi- 
tive churches  led  to  their  ruin  and  to  the  rise  of 
the  papal  power.  Every  minister  and  teacher 
and  church-officer  felt  that  if  he  had  more 
power  he  could  do  more  good,  not  remember- 
ing his  own  Aveakness,  and  the  corrupting  in- 
fluences of  power ;  not  calling  to  mind  that 
"  God  hath  chosen  the  foolish  things  of  the 
world  to  confound  the  wise,  and  the  weak 
things  of  the  world  to  confound  the  things 
which  are  mighty."*  God  works  by  human 
agencies,  but  He  gives  no  right,  and  takes 
away  all  pretence,  of  these  agencies,  or  any 
"  flesh  to  glory  in  his  presence." 

The  thirst  for  power,  the  rage  to  govern, 
infects  more  or  less  the  mass   and  the  indi- 

*  1  Cor.  i.  27—31. 


CHURCH   GOVERNMENT.  101 


viduals  of  every  religious  denomination;  it 
reaches  towards  every  thing  in  men's  conduct, 
and  every  thing  in  their  opinions.  Thus  men, 
themselves  weak,  fallible,  and  the   prey  of 
temptation,  strive  after  a  power  which  does 
not  belong  to  them,  which  they  have  not  wis- 
dom to  wield,  and  which,  if  obtained,  saps  their 
morals    and   ruins   their   souls.     How  little 
countenance  is  given  to  church  domination  by 
any  thing  contained  in  the  lives  or  teachings 
of  Christ  and  his   apostles!     How  little  to 
forms  and  ceremonies  !     The  Jewish  religion 
had  been  one  of  forms  and  ceremonies  in  de- 
tail without  number  -,  nearly  all  power  was  in 
the  priesthood.     All  this  had  been  perverted 
and  abused  to  the  very  utmost  extent  of  hu- 
man wickedness.    The  Christian  dispensation 
came  and  swept  off  every  vestige  of  these 
forms  and  ceremonies   and  the  whole  frame- 
work of  priestly  pov^er;    it   re-enacted   the 
whole  moral  law,  in  terms  so  comprehensive 
and  so  simple  as  apparently  to  leave  no  escape 
to  the  evasive  ingenuity  of  erring  man.     It 


9* 


102  APOSTOLIC    FORM. 


laid  clown  no  long  array  of  man's  duties  to 
God ;  but  commanded  him  to  love  God  with 
all  his  heart,  and  all  his  soul,  and  all  his  mind ; 
and,  instead  of  a  long  line  of  man's  duties  to 
his  fellow,  he  is  simply  enjoined  to  love  his 
neighbour  as  himself.  "  On  these  tw^o  com- 
mandments" are  made  to  "  hang  all  the  law 
and  the  prophets."  There  is  no  form  of  church- 
government  implied  in  these  commands, 
which  clearly  import  that  man's  great  duty 
to  God  and  his  fellow-man  can  only  be  dis- 
charged by  a  personal  performance.  All  that 
is  contained  in  the  waitings  of  the  apostles 
[in  the  teachings  of  Christ  there  is  nothing] 
is  so  dim  and  shadowy  in  outline,  we  are 
forced  to  the  conclusion  it  was  not  intended 
to  set  up  authoritatively  any  form  of  church 
government,  nor  to  convey  the  impression 
that  the  subject  was  of  any  vital  import.  If 
the  form  adopted  by  the  apostles  and  thus 
slightly  traced  be  deemed  obligatory,  certainly 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  handed  down  to 
us  by  its  authors  admonishes  that  we  should 


THE    SPIRIT    OF   FORMALISM.  103 


not  magnify  the  importance  of  that  which  is 
so  little  dwelt  upon  by  those  who  framed  it. 
It  was  because  Christ  appeared  in  the  garb 
of  poverty,  and  without  any  of  the  power  or 
pomp  or  riches  of  this  world,  that  the  Jews 
rejected  him  with  such  disdain :  being  wedded 
to  these  things,  they  could  not  believe  in  the 
reality  of  His  mission  who  condemned   and 

denounced  them.  This  spirit,  manifested  so 
strongly  by  the  Jews,  is  not  extinct  to  this 
day,  but  has  been  equally  visible  in  every 
age  of  the  Christian  era.  It  was  with  great 
difficulty  the  first  converts  at  Jerusalem  could 
l^elieve  the  gospel  was  to  be  preached  to  the 
Gentiles, — that  they  could  be  brought  to  give 
up  the  practice  of  circumcision,  the  observ- 
ance of  days  and  feasts,  and  other  Jewish 
forms  and  regulations,  and  bring  themselves 
to  the  simple  requirements  of  a  purely  spiritual 
worshijD.  In  reality,  nothing  was  left  of  Jewish 
forms,  for  this  spirit  to  feed  upon ;  and  to  re- 
move every  pretext  in  regard  to  days, — as, 
otherwise,  there  would  seem  to  be  a  great 


104  NEW   WINE   IN   OLD   BOTTLES. 


propriety  in  adopting  the  seventh  day  of  the 
week  as  the  day  of  Christian  worship, — even 
that  was  changed,  lest  it  should  come  to  be  re- 
garded rather  as  a  continuance  of  the  Jewish 
Sabbath  than  as  a  day  appointed  by  Chris- 
tians for  rest  from  labour  and  for  religious 
services.  The  necessity  of  that  change  is 
made  plain  enough  by  the  whole  history 
of  Christianity  :  even  now,  many  enforce  .the 
observance  of  the  first  day  of  the  week,  in 
the  same  terms  and  under  the  same  sanctions 
as  those  which  are  applied  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment to  the  seventh  day.  It  would  be  incre- 
dible, if  the  like  were  not  seen  upon  all  sides, 
and  more  or  less  in  every  form  of  Christian- 
ity, how  this  spirit  of  clogging  its  pure 
system  with  excrescences  which  in  few  in- 
stances have  been  of  any  use,  and,  in  very 
many,  of  incalculable  injury — this  putting  new 
wine  into  old  bottles — has  prevailed  from  the 
days  of  the  apostles  down  to  this  moment. 
It  is  a  spirit  which  may  be  losing  some  of  its- 
strength,  but  which  yet  exerts  its  power  with 


EXCRESCENCES.  105 


extraordinary  vigour :  having  its  root  in 
some  of  the  worst  vices  of  the  human  heart,  it 
cannot  readily  be  extirpated.  The  more  nu- 
merous these  excrescences  upon  the  Christian 
system,  the  more  numerous  are  the  pretexts 
for  human  agencies,  and  for  the  exercise  of 
spiritual  power.  They  were  piled  on  for  ages 
"by  the  Romish  church.  Protestants  have  not 
only  failed  to  cast  off  all  these  accumulations, 
but  adopt  many  of  their  own  invention  or 
selection.  It  is  in  regard  to  the  adoption  or 
rejection  of  these,  that  some  of  the  most  vio- 
lent  religious  controversies  have  been  carried 
on,  and  in  regard  to  which  the  greatest  re- 
ligious animosity  and  uncharitableness  have 
been  displayed.  The  Lord's  supj)er,  an  insti- 
tution of  the  simplest  possible  kind,  was  the 
subject  of  rank  abuse  in  the  days  of  the 
apostles,  and  has  ever  since,  in  various  ways, 
been  the  subject  of  singular  perversion.  The 
simple  emblem  of  purification  in  ba|)tism  has 
been  the  subject  of  like  abuse;  and  because  a 
man  may  simply  wash  his  face  or  hands  or 


106  CEREMONIES. 


feet,  or  may  bathe  his  whole  body  in  the 
water,  in  either  of  which  cases  the  emblem  is 
equally  significant,  a  controversy  is  waged 
with  heat,  not  only  whether  baptism  implies 
washing  or  bathing,  but  whether  it  carries 
with  it  regeneration.  The  ceremony  of  wash- 
ing the  feet  has  been  observed  among  Roman- 
ists, in  a  manner  which  is  a  perfect  mockery 
of  that  humility  its  appointment  was  intended 
to  promote  and  signify :  among  Protestants  it  is 
wholly  neglected.  The  fondness  for  ceremony 
and  outward  forms  does  not  reach  so  low  as 
this  act  of  humility,  which  is  as  clearly  en- 
joined as  the  Lord's  supper. 

The  beautiful  and  sublime  simplicity  of  the 
Christian  religion  is  thus  continuallv  sacrificed 
by  attempts  to  improve — to  build  upon  it ;  its 
progress  is  continually  impeded  by  loading  its 
movements  with  innumerable  additions  of 
man's  invention.  It  asks  none  of  these  aids  or 
accompaniments.  It  can  live  through  all  these 
abuses;  it  can  save  many  of  those  who  are 
unwittingly  guilty  of  them.     It  requires  no 


CHRISTIANITY   SURVIVES   ABUSE.  107 


superstructure  of  man's  devising,  no  adorn- 
ment or  trickery  of  his  wisdom :  it  asks  its 
votaries  to  give  their  affections  to  God,  and 
their  services  to  their  fellow-men :  it  asks  an 
exemphfication  of  its  purity  and  power  in 
their  lives  and  conversation. 


HOW  THE  GREAT  LAW  OF  CHARITY  HAS  BEEN 
CARRIED  OUT  BY  PROTESTANTS. 

We  have  already  adverted  to  the  fact  that 
the  reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century  ad- 
dressed themselves  mainly  to  the  task  of  res- 
cuing Holy  Writ  from  the  utter  disuse  to 
which  it  had  been  doomed,  and  the  truth 
from  that  mire  of  traditions,  superstitions,  and 
unmeaning  ceremonies  in  which  it  had  been 
for  so  many  ages  sunk  and  lost.  Their  first 
inquiries,  as  we  have  seen,  were,  since  we  dis- 
card this  mass  of  error  and  priestly  trash 
which  has  so  long  been  heaping  up  in  the 


108        ZEAL  FOR  SOUND  DOCTRINE. 


cliurch  of  Rome,  what  shall  we  believe,  and 
what  shall  constitute  the  outline  of  reformed 
doctrines  ?  The  whole  subject  of  charity  had 
become  odious  to  those  who  had  long  been 
contemplating  the  abuses  of  their  church,  and 
especially  the  frauds  and  atrocities  perpetrated 
under  the  cloak  of  that  Christian  grace.  Many 
heavy  yokes  had  been  placed  upon  the  necks 
of  the  people  by  that  church,  and  by  no  means 
the  lightest  were  those  imposed  under  the 
specious  pretences  of  charity.  The  reformers, 
in  carrying  out  their  work,  in  the  ardour  of  a 
conflict  in  which  none  but  men  of  surpassing 
energy  could  engage,  soon  forgot  every  con- 
sideration and  dropped  every  semblance  of 
charity — a  virtue  so  long  distorted  before  their 
eyes.  Their  cry  was  for  freedom  of  opinion 
and  worship,  for  truth^  for  sound  doctrine. 
They  may  have  supposed  that,  the  truth  once 
re-established  and  freely  proclaimed,  the  prac- 
tical duties  of  religion  would  be  fulfilled,  not 
only  with  increase  of  intelligence,  but  of  zeal. 
They  carried  on  their  great  work  until  Pro- 


FORMULAS   OF   THE    REFORMATION.  109 


testantism  stood  up  clearly  revealed  and  de- 
fined before  the  ^vorld.  The  Contest  by  which 
this  was  accomplished,  both,  physical  and  in- 
tellectual, was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  for 
interest,  fierceness,  and  endurance,  which  the 
world  has  ever  witnessed.  Rome  did  npt  per- 
mit this  affront  to  her  supremacy  without 
exerting  all  her  povv^er  and  all  the  unscrupu- 
lous wickedness  of  interested  dio:nitaries.  The 
vigour  of  youthful  liberty  and  free  opinions 
overpowered  a  church  in  its  dotage.  In  this 
contest  charity  had  no  part.  Unhappily,  the 
reformers  not  only  scouted  the  Romish  abuse 
of  charity,  but  they  neglected  to  give  this 
divine  grace  that  place  in  their  system  which 
it  occupies  in  the  New  Testament,  which  it 
claims  in  every  Christian's  heart,  and  without 
which  all  forms  of  religion  must  be  incom- 
plete, if  not  false.  In  none  of  the  formulas 
of  the  Reformation,  in  none  of  its  creeds,  con- 
fessions, catechisms,  did  the  subject  of  charity 
figure  according  to  that  precedency  which  is 
given  to  it  in  the  teachings  of  Christ  and  his 

10 


110  CHARITY    LEFT    OUT. 


apostles ;  and  in  many  instances  it  was  lost 
siii'ht  of  alto2;ether.  The  doctrine  of  human  de- 
pravity,  imputed  righteousness,  justification 
by  faith,  repentance,  regeneration,  the  head- 
ship of  Christ,  the  freeness  of  God's  grace, 
among  very  many  others,  were  brought  to 
light  and  vindicated  as  truths  of  the  gospel : 
innumerable  errors  of  Romish  doctrine  and 
belief  were  singled  out,  refuted,  and  held  up 
to  ridicule  or  public  detestation.  All  this  vf  as 
done ',  but  all  reformers  have  found  it  more 
easy  to  |)ull  down  than  to  build  up.  Men  can 
seldom  glory  over  their  own  work.  They 
draQ:2;ed  Romanism  from  the  horse,  and  in  at- 
tempting  to  mount,  they  went  clear  over  t(T 
the  other  side.  The  priests  of  Rome  preached 
charity  as  a  mode  of  enriching  the  church ; 
and  while  streams  of  charity  flowed  from  their 
people  to  the  poor,  many  of  the  rich  continued 
to  make  the  church  and  its  officers  the  depo- 
sitaries of  their  wealth,  in  confidence  that  it 
would  be  applied  to  the  relief  of  the  needy. 
These  streams  of  bounty  they  swelled  Avith  all 


STRUCTURE    OF    PROTESTANTISM.  Ill 


the  skill  and  all  the  means  in  their  power.  The 
subject  was  never  forgotten,  but  kept  con- 
stantly before  the  minds  of  the  people.  How- 
ever unfaithful  the  priest,  the  bishop,  or  the 
monk  may  have  been  to  their  trust,  yet  how 
many  were  moved,  by  such  constant  appeals 
to  their  kindness,  to  the  regular  and  faithful 
distribution  of  alms  !  How  many  were  in  con- 
sequence visited  in  prison  !  how  many  of  the 
naked  were  clothed !  how  many  of  the  sick 
were  visited  !  to  how  many  of  the  thirsty  was 
the  cup  of  cold  water  administered.  True, 
many  di|i  all  this  without  any  clear  concep- 
tion of  scriptural  charity;  but  the  exercise 
of  such  kindness  must  more  or  less  cultivate 
the  true  grace  it  represents. 

The  reformers  took  the  Bible  in  their  ^ 
hands,  reared  the  standard  of  truth,  swept 
off  the  rubbish  of  Romanism,  and  erected  the 
fabric  of  Protestantism,  but  overlooked,  in 
their  readings  of  the  New"  Testament,  its  im- 
perative injunctions  of  brotherly  kindness. 
Their  building  w^as  massy,  of  noble  and  severe 


112        REAL   :\IERITS    OF   THE    BEFORMATION. 


outline  :  its  frame-work  of  truth  was  of  im- 
pregnable strength,  yet  was  it  cold,  forbidding, 
and  uncomfortable;  it  was  neither  warmed 
nor  lighted  by  charity.  The  men  of  the  Ee-  y 
formation  were  men  of  truth,  not  of  charity. 
It  was  an  age  which  called  into  action  all  the 
stern  energies  of  the  man,  the  warrior,  and 
the  defender  of  truth.  When  every  nerve  of 
mental  and  physical  exertion  was  strung  to 
its  utmost  intensity,  the  milder  graces  of  cha- 
rity were  forgotten  amid  scenes  in  which  there 
appeared  so  little  occasion  for  their  exercise. 
Look  into  the  theology  of  the  Reformation  a,nd 
see  if  it  be  not  subject  to  this  reproach.  It  is 
a  form  of  Christianity  with  charity  left  out ; 
and  yet  if  this  form  implied  a  strength  of  faith 
which  '^^  could  remove  mountains,"  it  would  be 
"nothing."  It  is  a  monstrous  technicality;  it 
is  sculptured  marble,  white  and  beautiful,  but  k/ 
rigid  and  unfeeling. 

This  takes  away  none  of  the  real  merits  of^/ 
the  Eeformation.   The  Bible  was  rescued  from 
oblivion  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  peo- 


THE  BIBLE  GIVEN  TO  THE  PEOPLE.     113 


pie,  as  the  rule  of  tlieir  faith — a  lamp  for 
their  feet,  and  a  light  to  their  path.  It  would 
be  very  wrong  to  assert  that  those  who  had 
thus  newly  placed  their  hands  upon  the  word 
of  God  must  be  the  safest  expositors  of  its  in- 
junctions. They  executed  a  task  as  great  as 
any  men  ever  achieved,  but  they  should  not 
continue  to  be  our  sole  spiritual  teachers.  We 
are  bound  to  search  the  Scriptures  for  our- 
selves, and  all  who  faithfully  stud}^  the  teach- 
ings of  Christ  will  find  a  mine  of  instruction 
which  is  not  prominent  in  the  writings  of 
reformers.  Romanism  is  like  a  man  full  of 
all  manner  of  disease,  immersed  in  ignorance 
and  mental  darkness,  in  slavish  subjection  to 
the  power  of  the  church,  but  with  a  hand  often 
open  to  succour  the  poor.  Protestantism  is  ^^ 
a  giant  of  bone  and  sinew  and  iron  nerve ; 
full  of  enterprise,  energy,  and  action ;  ready 
to  defend  the  right  and  to  do  justice,  and 
armed  to  battle  for  the  truth ;  but  with  a  hand 
more  ready  to  discipline  than  relieve  the  beg- 
gar.   It  is  very  clear  that  true  Christians  are 


10^- 


114  OUR   ONLY    SAFE   GUIDE. 


not  made  so  by  any  virtue  in  Romanism^  nor 
by  any  virtue  in  Protestantism.  Both  these 
forms  of  religion  are  of  man's  construction, 
and,  however  great  the  difference  in  their 
merit,  they  both  partake  of  human  frailty. 
Our  only  safe  guide  is  the  word  of  God  in  our 
ow^n  hands,  the  teachings  of  which  in  their 
main  scope  are  so  plain  that  the  humblest  in- 
tellect may  find  the  words  of  eternal  life. 


THE  BENEFITS  OF  THE  REFOEMATION  NO  REASON 
FOR  PERPETUATING  ITS  ERRORS. 

Whilst  it  is  true  that  the  errors  of  the 
reformers  w^ere  such  as  belonged  to  the  pe- 
riod, the  occasion,  and  the  kind  of  men  who 
were  called  to  do  the  work;  and  whilst  it 
is  equally  true  that  in  some  sense  the  reforma- 
tion is  a  work  continued  to  this  day — for  the 
contest  with  Romish  error  is  far  from  being 
ended, — yet  the  sins,  omissions,  and  mistakes 


ERROR    IN    ALL    HUMAN    DOINGS.  115 


of  the  early  reformation  should  be  as  carefully 
rectified  and  avoided  as  any  other  errors  or 
transgressions.  The  success  of  the  reformers^ 
in  the  first  instance,  was  remarkable;  but  they 
were  far  from  seizing  and  presenting  the  whole 
scope  and  spirit  of  Christianity.  Error  min- 
gles in  all  human  doings  :  the  reformation  ex- 
hibits its  share.  It  has  been  the  duty  of  Pro- 
testants 'ever  since,  not  only  to  vindicate 
constantly  the  great  truths  brought  out  at  the 
Reformation,  but  constantly  to  extend  and  pu- 
rify their  knowledge ;  and,  whilst  thus  hold- 
ing up  the  truth,  to  aim  at  a  better  fulfilment 
of  the  duties  of  Christianity.  It  is  to  be  feared 
that  what  was  a  necessary  feature  of  the 
early  reformation  has  been  too  exclusive  a 
characteristic  ever  since  of  Protestantism — a 
devotion  to  Christian  truth  far  exceeding  our 
devotion  to  Christian  duty.  Our  preaching 
and  our  teaching  have  been  carried  on  with 
wonderful  zeal  and  diligence ;  many  run  to  and 
fro,  and  knowledge  is  increased;  the  means 
of  grace  are  spread  abroad  and  resorted  to  with 


116     NO    ZEAL   CAN   DISPENSE   WITH    CHARITY. 


a  perseverance  that  evinces  a  just  apprecia- 
tion of  Christian  truth )  but  it  is  too  little  felt 
that  all  this  comes  far  short  of  practical  Chris- 
tianity. 

No  attendance  upon  the  preaching  of  the 
gospel,  nor  upon  the  ordinances  of  any 
church  or  congregation,  nor  upon  any  minis- 
trations— no  zeal  nor  industry  in  Bible  classes 
nor  catechetical  teaching — no  liberality  in 
sustaining  the  ministry,  nor  any  of  the  enter- 
prises of  the  churches,  can  dispense  us  from 
the  obligation  to  love  our  neighbour  as  our- 
selves— from  doing  unto  others  as  we  would 
have  them  do  unto  us ;  nor  from  any  of  those 
duties  of  charity  which  are  so  strongly  en- 
joined by  Christ  himself  as  the  chief  of  our 
duties.  Truth _. cannot  save  us;  even  that 
faith  which  can  remove  mountains  is  insuffi- 
cient without  charity.  No  zeal  for  prayers, 
or  liturgy,  or  church  service,  nor  creed,  nor 
confessions,  nor  for  the  Bible  itself,  can  re- 
place the  duties  of  brotherly  kindness.  It  is 
all  vain  to  call  Lord,  Lord,  if  we  do  not  the 


LOVE  NOT  IN  AVORD,  BUT  IN  DEED.    117 


things  which  our  Lord  says.*  "  But  whoso 
hath  this  world's  good^  and  seeth  his  brother 
have  need;  and  shutteth  up  his  bowels  of  com- 
passion from  him,  how  dwelleth  the  love  of 
God  in  him  ?  My  little  children,  let  us  not 
love  in  word,  neither  in  tongue,  but  in  deed 
and  in  truth."-j- 


CHARACTERISTICS     OF     PROTESTANTISM    DEVE- 
LOPED IN  ITS  GROWTH. 

Protestantism  does  not,  however,  owe  all 
its  distinguishing  features  to  the  events  of  the 
Keformation  nor  to  the  peculiarities  of  the 
reformers.  The  church  of  Rome  having 
long  held  men  in  temporal  and  spiritual 
bondage,  the  truths  which  the  Reformation 
brought  to  light  constituted  a  real  emanci- 
pation. Before  that  time,  men's  minds  and 
estates  were  claimed  by  the  church,  and  the 
claim  w\as  enforced  to  an  extent  which  checked 

*  Luke.vi.  46.  f  1  John  iii.  17,  18. 


118  PROTESTANT    ENERGY. 


energy,  enterprise,  and  industrial  progress. 
All  Europe  and  the  world  ^  soon  felt  tlie  acti- 
vity and  life  infused  into  business  by  Pro- 
testant energy.  This  was  the  natural 
result  of  that  mental  freedom  which  per- 
mitted men  to  determine  their  course  of  life, 
free  from  the  bonds  of  superstition  aud  priest- 
ly rule.  Science,  literature,  industry,  and 
commerce,  all  felt  the  new  impulse,  and  com- 
menced the  great  career  which  has  brought 
the  world  to  its  present  advanced  position; 
the  fetters  being  removed  which  had  bound 
men  for  a  thousand  years  to  miserable  inac- 
tion and  mental  sloth.  Galileo  and  Copernicus 
could  safely  have  announced  their  discoveries 
under  the  protection  of  Luther.  Newton  would 
have  been  treated  like  them,  had  he  lived  in 
their  days,  under  papal  rule.  At  the  time 
this  Protestant  energy  began  to  display  its 
power,  the  treasures  of  the  New  World  were 
pouring  into  Europe,  and  doubtless  aided  to 
stimulate  that  movement  which  was  then  so 
remarkable,  and  which  has  continued  until  it 


LIBERTY  OF  THOUGHT  PROMOTES  ENERGY.  119 


exhibits  in  the  results  of  three  centuries'  pro- 
gress a  greater  advance  than  in  all  the  pre- 
vious history  of  the  world.  To  trace  this 
progress  in  its  connection  with  reformed 
Christianity,  would  be  a  topic  worthy  of  vo- 
lumes. We  do  not  speak  of  this  as  progress 
in  Christianity;  we  do  not  claim  it  as  a 
Christian  conquest.  It  has  sprung  from  that 
freedom  of  mind  which  is  essential  to  Chris- 
tianity, but  it  has  in  a  large  degree  been 
achieved  in  defiance  or  neglect  of  the  great 
law  of  charity. 

The  most  remarkable  developments  of 
human  energy  which  have  ever  been  exhi- 
bited have  taken  place  in  connection  with 
the  enjoyment  of  more  than  ordinary  per- 
sonal or  national  liberty.  Thus  was  mani- 
fested the  military  energy  of  Greece  and  Rome ; 
thus  the  commercial  energy  of  the  Italian  re- 
publics, the  Hanse  towns;  but  no  human 
energy  has  ever  equalled  that  which  has  been 
displayed  under  the  liberty  conferred  by  Pro- 
testantism.    This  has  been  exerted  equally 


120  EXAMPLES. 


•  in  peace,  in  science,  in  arts,  in  industrial  pro- 
duction, and  in  commerce.  It  would  not  be 
just  to  claim  for  Protestantism  all  that  lias 
been  accomplished,  yet  it  may  be  safely  as- 
serted that  Protestants  have  led  the  way  in 
this  great  advance  of  knowledge,  art,  and  in- 
dustry. Many  Catholic  countries  have  re- 
mained almost  stationary :  witness  Italy, 
Spain,  Portugal,  Ireland,  Mexico,  and  the 
countries  of  South  America.  Germnn  Catho- 
lics have  had  the  aid  and  have  been  stimu- 
lated by  the  example  of  Gemian  Protestants. 
France  once  had  a  large  infusion  of  Protest- 
ants, who  were  notoriously  the  most  enlight- 
ened and  the  most  industrious  of  her  people : 
when  they  were  cruelly  massacred  or  driven 
abroad,  they  carried  with  them  the  best  manu- 
facturing skill  of  their  country.  How  much 
the  progress  of  France  was  retarded  by  this 
insane  and  wicked  persecution  can  never  be 
told ;  it  may  be  conjectured  from  the  advance 
made  since  that  revolution  in  which  the 
whole  nation  rose  in  mass  and  shook  off  the 


PROTESTANT   ENERGIES   NOT   OVER    PURE.     121 


thraldom  of  the  papacy.  If  France  had  theu 
become  Protestant,  her  social  progress  would 
have  responded  to  the  greatness  of  her  efforts 
'  and  sacrifices ;  but  having  made  the  attempt 
to  cast  off  all  rehgion,  she  easily  fell  back  into 
the  arms  of  the  Priesthood,  never  again,  we 
may  hope,  to  relapse  into  the  darkness  of  papal 
superstition.  The  Eomish  religions  of  France 
and  Spain  are  far  from  being  identical  in 
their  power  over  the  people. 

But  we  cannot  by  any  means  claim  this 
Protestant  superiority"  as  any  triumph  for 
Christianity.  The  energy  which  has  achie- 
ved so  much  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  and  other  Protestant  countries,  has 
not  always  been  controlled  by  the  pure  mo- 
tives of  Christianity.  No,  far  from  it !  Hu- 
man faculties  and  energies,  set  free  from 
bondage,  spiritual  and  temporal,  would  not 
naturally  engage  in  the  service  of  the  Re- 
deemer. Rome,  where  she  had  or  has  the 
power,  holds  her  subjects  to  the  service 
of  the  church :  Protestantism  can  only  offer 


122  PROTESTANT   CONQUESTS    SMALL. 


to  those  by  wliom  she  is  surrounded^  the  invi- 
tations of  the  gospel  on  the  one  hand ;  whilst 
the  world,  with  all  its  allurements,  presents 
its  inducements  on  the  other.  In  this  strug- 
gle, every  human  effort  has  been  employed. 
The  Protestant  ministry  have  armed  them- 
selves with  all  the  learning  of  the  world ;  they 
have  built  up  a  great  science  of  theology ; 
they  have  formed  themselves  into  a  variety 
of  camps,  holding  every  variety  of  opinion 
which  free  minds  can  draw  from  the  study 
of  their  acknowledged  rule  of  life,  the  Scrip- 
tures; and  they  have  unitedly  exerted  an 
amount  of  labour  and  zeal  in  their  w^ork, 
which  has  seldom  been  surpassed  in  any  de- 
partment of  life,  by  any  class  of  men.  These 
efforts,  continued  now  through  two  centuries, 
have  not  been  without  results.  Yet  the  full 
benefits  of  Christianity  have  been  brought 
home  to  a  few  only  of  those  who  have  en- 
joyed all  these  advantages.  It  may  be  feared 
that  not  a  tenth  of  the  people  of  any  Protest- 
ant country  can  be  truly  claimed  as  having 


THE   MEN   OF   THE   WORLD    NOT   IDLE.         123 


been  unfeigned  disciples  of  Christ,  taking  their 
ministers  as  judges.  This  is  a  small  triumph, 
indeed,  if  we  regard  the  ejQTorts  made,  and  the 
means  employed.  But  if  few  have  been  saved, 
many  have  been  brought  within  the  influences 
of  the  gospel,  to  submit  to  many  of  its  require- 
ments, to  contribute  to  its  support,  to  acknow- 
ledge its  worth,  to  conform  to  its  morality ; 
and  thus  characteristics  have  been  imparted 
to  the  population  of  Protestant  countries 
which  are  peculiarly  their  own.  While  the 
zeal  and  labours  of  Christian  ministers  were 
thus  applied  to  draw  converts  from  the  mul- 
titude, the  men  of  the  world  were  not  less 
energetically  employed.  Whilst  they,  for  the 
most  jyart,  were  constrained  by  the  force  of 
public  opinion  to  preserve  an  outward  appear- 
ance of  respect  for  religion,  all  their  plans 
and  labours  were  dictated  and  carried  on 
under  motives  of  consideration  purely  human. 
In  this  play  of  the  human  faculties,  under  no 
powerful  constraint,  their  powers  for  good 
and  evil  have,  been  more  signally  developed 


124  INTENSE    SELFISHNESS. 


and  displayed  than  in  any  age  of  the  world. 
A  new  race  of  men  has  sprung  up,  and  intel- 
lectual power  is  more  widely  spread  among 
the  masses  than  ever  heretofore.  Human 
nature  has  asserted  its  evil  tendencies  in  the 
most  striking  forms;  but  in  no  way  so  re- 
markable as  in  the  form  of  that  intense  self- 
ishness which  is  manifested  in  the  pursuit 
of  wealth  and  power.  Whilst  we  might  dwell 
upon  many  triumphs  of  science,  art,  and  indus- 
try, in  Protestant  countries,  as  these  do  not  lie 
within  the  scope  of  our  subject,  we  feel  bound 
to  say  that  too  great  devotion  to  the  pursuit 
of  riches,  to  the  increase  of  production  and 
the  extension  of  commerce,  has  been  their 
chief  characteristic.  It  is  not  to  be  wondered 
that  where  human  nature  had  full  scope,  it 
should  spend  itself  in  a  direction,  so  much 
in  accordance  with  its  dictates.  Men  no  longer 
feared  the  deprivation  of  their  wealth  under 
the  fearful  terrors  of  the  inquisition  or  the 
powerful  suction  of  the  church.  They  re- 
garded only  the  laws  of  the  land.   Under  these 


*  BATTLE    OF   LIFE.  125 


circumstances,  the  business  of  the  world  took 
a  start,  which  left  far  in  the  shade  any  ex- 
ample in  its  previous  history.  The  energies 
and  the  talents  of  men  grew  with  their  un- 
wonted exercise,  and  strengthened  from  gene- 
ration to  generation.  It  became  a  great  strug- 
gle, in  which  the  most  powerful  intellects,  the 
greatest  talents,  the  largest  experience,  the 
deepest  skill,  or  the  most  consummate  cun- 
ning, gained  the  victory.  In  this  contest 
every  possible  human  eifort  was  exerted. 
Emulation  and  competition  became  control- 
ling elements  in  this  pursuit  of  wealth.  The 
excitements  of  the  gambler  were  often  added 
to*  the  other  motives  of  those  engaged  in  this 
struggle,  by  the  unavoidable  complications 
and  uncertainties  which  attended  many  of 
the  best  laid  schemes.  The  minds  of  men 
became  thus  absorbed  to  a  degree  which 
would  be  incredible  if  we  were  not  daily  wit- 
nesses. In  the  midst  of  all  this  turmoil,  there 
arose  a  business  morality,  exhil^iting  a  punc- 
tuality, an  adherence  to  contracts,  an  honesty 


11* 


126  BUSINESS    MORALITY. 


in  the  execution  of  trusts,  a  faithfulness  to- 
promises — far  exceeding  what  the  world  had 
ever  known.  It  was  in  fact,  a  necessity  of 
business,  without  which  by  mutual  consent, 
the  immense  transactions  of  which  it  was  the 
bond,  could  never  have  been  carried  on.  It 
borrowed  some  of  its  maxims  from  Christi- 
anity, and  the  whole  of  this  vast  movement 
had  a  tinge  of  Christian  colouring  thrown 
over  it,  gilding  many  of  its  deformities,  but 
not  sanctifying  them. 

It  is  but  too  plain  that  the  Protestant 
ministry,  not  being  able  to  stem  the  tide  of 
this  resistless  streo.m  of  human  selfishness, 
mmgled  too  much  with  it.  As  the  early  Ro- 
man priesthood  compromised  with  that  pa- 
ganism which  they  became  less  and  less  able 
to  overcome  as  they  became  more  corrupt, 
and  adopted  many  of  its  customs  and  prac- 
tices, as  a  fit  amalgamation  with  the  papacy, 
^  we  have  too  much  reason  to  believe  that  a 
gradual  compromise  took  place  between  the 
devotees  of  mammon  and  the  ministers  of 


THE   MEN   OF   THIS   WORLD.  127 


Christ.  Protestantism  was  strong  enough  and 
pure  enough  to  command  respect,  to  establish 
a  public  opinion,  and  by  this  means  to  enforce 
a  seeming  submission  to  some  of  the  external 
requirements  of  Christianity.  The  men  of  this 
world  conceded  so  much,  and  are  received  into 
Protestant  congregations,  not  as  Christians, 
but  as  the  material  upon  which  the  teaching 
and  preaching  is  to  be  expended.  They  be- 
come hearers  of  the  word,  and  large  contri- 
butors to  the  maintenance  of  ministers  and 
teachers.  They  are  officers  in  the  temporal 
affairs  of  the  congregations,  and  exercise  no 
small  control  in  all  their  concerns.  In  the 
Eomish  church,  the  priesthood  hold  in  their 
hands  not  only  all  its  spiritual  affairs,  but  all 
its  property  and  business  of  every  kind. 
Among  the  Protestants  are  two  classes — the 
real  Christians,  members  of  the  church ;  and 
the  mere  hearers,  spectators,  members  .of  the 
congregations.  Among  the  Romanists,  all  are 
alike  members  of  the  church,  whatever  dif- 
ference there  may  be  in  their  respective  at- 


128       THEIR   INFLUENCE   IN   fHE   CHURCHES. 


tention  to  its  requirements  :  all  are  members 
who  are  not  excommunicated.  The  men  of 
the  world  have,  then,  a  strong  position  in  Pro- 
testant churches,  and  exercise  a  visible  in- 
fluence. The  whole  expenditure  of  Protestant 
congregations  of  almost  every  denomination, 
for  every  purpose,  religious  and  philanthropic, 
is  derived,  in  a  large  degree,  from  those  who 
are  not  acknowledged  to  be  real  disciples  of 
Christ. 

Those  who  thus  contribute  may  be,  and 
are,  frequently,  patterns  of  business  morality; 
they  may  be  kind  neighbours,  good  friends, 
and  praiseworthy  in  all  the  relations  of  this 
life ;  but  they  are  regarded  as  more  devoted 
to  this  world  than  to  the  world  to  come.  We 
undertake  not  to  say  how  much  of  good  or  of 
evil  may  be  in  all  this ;  but  we  ask  if  there 
be  not  some  clanger  in  this  commingling  of  the 
men  of  the  world  and  the  disciples  of  Christ 
in  the  business  of  the  churches  ?  Will  not  the 
former  exercise  an  influence  proportionate  to 
their  contributions  ?     And  are  not  their  con- 


THE  world's    maxims    IN   THE    CHURCH.      129 


<.  i 


tribiitions  frequently  the  largest?  Can  we 
not,  in  fact,  readily  point  out  some  of  the  re- 
sults of  this  hybrid  system  ?  One  of  these  is, 
that  the  spirit  of  business,  which  rules  in  the 
affairs  of  the  world,  has  largely  invaded  the 
churches.  In  many  Protestant  countries, 
others  being  the  judges,  religion  has  become 
merely  an  affair  of  state,  or  a  matter  of  busi- 
ness. But  we  may  pass  over  these  large  ex- 
emplifications, in  which  political  control  aided 
the  evil  result,  and  regard  only  the  purest  and 
best  of  their  churches.  In  these,  even,  religion 
has  assumed  many  of  the  maxims  and  prac- 
tices of  business.  Buildings  are  erected  for 
the  worship  of  God  where  men  are  found  to 
pay  for  them ;  ministers  preach  where  men 
are  found  to  pay  them ;  congregations  assem- 
ble in  costly  temples  which  they  have  con- 
tributed to  build,  or  the  services  of  which  they 
contribute  to  maintain;  ministers  and  mis- 
sionaries are  trained  up  and  go  forth  where 
there  is  money  provided  to  educate  and  main- 
tain them ;  associations  are  created  to  promote 


130  MONEY   IS   THE    MAINSPRING. 


every  form  of  philanthropy  where  money  can 
be  had  to  sustain  them.  Every  manner  of 
good  work  is  accomplished  where  money  can 
be  had  to  pay  for  it.  A  division  of  labour  is  1 
established  in  religion  and  good  works.  Some 
furnish  the  head,  some  the  heart,  some  the 
hands,  and  some  the  money.  In  these  pro- 
cesses, the  riches  of  this  world  become  a  ruling 
element,  a  foundation  of  all  the  system,  and 
the  cause  of  all  the  success.  It  would  be  im- 
possible to  distinguish  in  all  this  work,  what 
share  is  taken  by  those  of  whom  it  is  said, 
^^  It  is  easier  for  a  camel  to  go  through  the 
eye  of  a  needle,  than  for  a  rich  man  to  enter 
into  the  kingdom  of  God;"  but  it  is  well 
known  they  partake  largely  and  wield  an  im- 
portant influence.  Money,  in  too  strong  a 
sense,  is  the  mainspring  of  a  large  portion  of  this 
activity ;  remove  this  spring,  and  the  machine- 
ry would  stop.  Whence  comes  this  money  ? 
It  is  not  the  voluntary  offerings  of  crowds 
who  come  up  cheerfully  and  pour  their  con- 
tributions into  the  treasury  of  the  churches. 


■  I 


THiS  MONEY  IS  EXACTED.         131 


It  is  levied,  nay  even  exacted,  by  a  system 

and  under .  influences  which  do  not   permit 

J. 
denial ;  under  such  penalties  as  the  givers  are 

afraid  to  incur.  It  has  become  a  great  busi- 
ness to  raise  money  for  religious  and  benevo- 
lent purposes.  A  man  may  live  in  the  house 
of  another,  if  he  pays  the  rent ;  he  may  own 
real  estate  in  any  country,  if  he  pays  the  taxes ; 
so  he  may  have  a  seat  in  the  house  of  God  if 
he  pays  its  assessment.  He  may  occuj)y  a 
respectable  position  in  the  church,  and  in  the 
society  around  it,  if  he  contributes  liberally, 
when  called  upon,  to  all  the  numerous  de- 
mands which  religious  and  charitable  associa- 
tions make  upon  him.  It  would  be  hard  to 
conjecture  how  much  of  the  money  levied  in 
this  way  would  be  got,  if  it  were  left  to  flow 
in  solely  by  the  spontaneous  movements  of  the 
contributors.  Certainly  a  very  small  portion. 
It  is  a  regular  system  of  business,  this  sys- 
tematic benevolence ;  and  if  this  feature  be 
taken  away,  the  whole  must  fall  to  the  ground, 
unless  some  otlier  life  be  breathed  into  it.    A 


132        THIS   IS   NOT    THE    CHRISTIAN   SYSTEM. 


vast  amount  of  good  may  be  thus  accom- 
plished; many  good  Cliristians  may  mingle 
in  these  labours ;  yet  this  system  is  not  Chris- 
tianity, nor  has  it  the  purity  or  vitality  of  the 
Christian  system. 

We  protest  against  Christianity  being  made 
responsible  for  this  mode  of  operation,  what- 
ever of  good  or  evil  may  be  the  result.  It  is 
rather  an  excrescence  fastened  upon  Chris- 
tianity by  human  frailty,  and  being  so  at- 
tached, it  is  regarded  by  too  many  beholders, 
who  take  not  the  trouble  to  examine,  as  a 
part  of  the  Christian  system.  Let  the  probe 
be  freely  applied,  and  it  will  be  found  this  ex- 
crescence is  no  part  of  the  system  which  it 
overshadows,  conceals,  and  deforms. 

We  mean  not  unqualified  condemnation  : 
every  form  or  manifestation  of  Christianity 
must  be  more  or  less  marred  by  human  frailty. 
Let  us  be  careful  to  separate  that  which  is 
human  from  that  which  is  divine  :  and,  above 
all,  let  us  be  careful  not  to  place  that  which 
is  human  above  that  which  is  divine.     We 


CHARITY  AS  GOOD  FOR  GIVER  AS  RECEIVER.  133 


merely  point  to  a  system  professedly  Chris- 
tian^ by  which  men  commit  their  charity  to 
the  keeping  of  others,  and  permit  their  good 
works  to  grow  upon  other  people's  vines :  by 
which  we  may  do  good  to  others,  but  get  none 
for  ourselves. 

But  let  us  not  too  much  disparage  this 
business-like  philanthrophy :  it  is  a  tribute 
to  the  sublimer  spirit  of  Christianity ;  yet  not 
to  be  confounded  with  that  system  in  which 
the  gift  of  two  mites  may  exceed  in  import- 
ance and  in  results  the  bestowal  of  millions. 
We  would  not  condemn,  we  w^ould  not  dis- 
courage this  kind  of  effort ;  it  may  lead  some 
to  think  they  are  fulfilling  all  their  Christian 
duties,  and  thus  lead  them  astray;  but  the 
general  tendency  must  be  to  open  the  chan- 
nels of  good  affections,  to  liberalize  the  mind, 
and  to  strengthen  benevolent  emotions. 

Christianity  designs  the  exercise  of  charity 
to  be  as  useful  to  those  who  exercise  it  as  to 
those  in  whose  favour  it  is  exercised — to  him 
who  gives  alms  as  to  him  who  receives  them, 

12 


134  IT    CANNOT  WAIT   FOR    DIRECTION, 


to  those  who  visit  the  sick  and  suffering  and 
the  imprisoned,  who  clothe  the  naked  and 
feed  the  hungry,  to  those  who  administer  the 
cup  of  cold  water  to  the  thirsty,  as  to  those  in 
whose  favour  these  kind  offices  are  performed. 
Christian  charity  is  the  overflowing  of  kindly 
affections:  it  cannot  commit  to  others  that 
which  it  can  perform  itself:  it  cannot  wait  for 
direction  nor  arrangement,  but  promptly 
stretches  forth  the  hand  of  succour,  wdierever 
it  finds  a  claim  for  relief  Charity  is  poured 
from  the  heart ;  that  which  springs  up  in  the 
soul,  that  loves  its  neighbour  as  it  loves  itself, 
can  never  be  satisfied  by  paying  contributions 
into  the  treasury  of  any  association,  however 
praiseworthy  its  objects.  The  starving  j)auper 
craves  bread  with  no  stronger  sensations  than 
the  charitable  soul  desires  to  minister  to  him 
the  succour  and  comfort  he  needs :  the  sons 
and  daughters  of  affliction  crave  sympathy 
and  consolation  with  no  stronger  emotions 
than  are  felt  by  the  charitable  souls  who  fly 
to  commune  with  and  comfort  them.    Charity 


BUT  CRAVES  THE  PLEASURE  OF  GIVING.        135 


does  not  consist  in  any  system  which  merely 
secures  comfort  to  the  poor  and  afflicted : 
it  consists  in  the  overflowing  of  those  affec- 
tions which  prompt  us  to  fly  uncalled  to  the 
help  of  the  miserable. 


TOO  MUCH  RELIANCE  ON  LEARNING.— THE  AF- 
FECTIONS TO  BE  EXERCISED  AS  WELL  AS  THE 
MIND. 

Christianity  has  suffered  from  the  labours 
of  men  in  another  aspect.  While  the  spirit 
of  business  has  invaded  religion  on  one  side, 
learning  and  theology  have  occupied  too  much 
ground  on  the  other.  It  required  but  a  few 
years  of  Christ's  ministry  to  announce  his  great 
message.  These  simple  but  sublime  truths 
are  recorded  by  the  four  evangelists  in  very 
small  space.  They  are  so  plain  that  he  that 
runs  may  understand.  Christ  consummated 
his  mission  by  suffering  on  the  cross,  and 
the  work  of  redemption  was  accomplished. 


^ 


136    ALL  CANNOT  BE  VERSED  IN  THEOLOGY. 


His  ajoostles  went  forth  to  proclaim  the  glad 
tidings  of  salvation :  they  exhorted,  explained, 
argued,  vindicated,  and  illustrated,  according 
to  the  circumstances  in  which  they  were 
placed,  and  the  persons  to  wdiom  they  ad- 
dressed themselves,  whether  Jew  or  Gentile. 
Both  were  opposed  to  the  truth,  and  to  both 
were  applied  such  motives  and  treatment  as 
their  case  required. 

We  mean  not  to  urge  any  objections  to 
theology  in  itself,  nor  to  deny  that  our  spi- , 
ritual  teachers  should  be  versed  in  such 
knowledge.  They  may  by  such  learning  be 
more  thoroughly  furnished  to  every  good 
work,  and  be  enabled  to  prosecute  their 
labours  with  more  success  among  all  classes 
of  men.  But  all  Christians  camiot  be  versed 
in  theology :  it  cannot  safely  be  asserted  how  . 
much  knowledge  is  requisite  to  save  a  be- 
liever. This  gauge  is  not  placed  in  human 
hands.  It  is  true,  the  more  knowledge  of  the 
Christian  system  the  better ;  but  if  this  light 
emit  no  heat,  it  is  deceptive  and  injurious. 


LIGHT  SHOULD  NOT  BE  WITHOUT  HEAT.        137 


It  is  not  the  knowledge  of  God,  but  the  love 
of  God,  which  constitutes  the  Christian  :  it  is 
not  Christian  doctrine  as  measured  by  human 
faculties  which  makes  Christianity,  but  the 
perfect  love  of  our  neighbour.  Men  are  not 
saved  by  their  knowledge,  but  by  their  affec- 
tions. Few  can  make  high  attainments  in 
knowledge,  but  all  may  in  tlie  exercise  of 
kindly  feelings.  Men  are  less  answerable  for 
the  degree  of  their  knowledge  than  they  are 
for  the  use  they  make  of  it.  If  the  temple 
is  not  warmed  as  well  as  lighted,  it  is  not  the 
abode  of  a  Christian  man. 

We  fear  that  too  great  prominence  is  given 
to  doctrinal  instruction.  Too  much  effort  is 
given  to  discipline  men  into  parallel  belief, 
to  curb  and  restrain  men's  minds  into  one  or 
a  few  channels  of  faith.  All  efforts  thus  ap- 
plied have  fallen  far  more  short  of  success  in 
reality  than  they  have  even  in  appearance. 
It  is  far  from  true  that  the  individuals  of  any 
denominations  of  Christians  agree  in  opinions; 
there  are,  probably,  as  many  shades  of  belief 


C^ 


138     THE  TRUE  MODE  OF  PREACHING. 


as  tliere  are  differences  in  minds.  It  is  im- 
possible to  bring  various  mental  capacities  to 
one  measure ;  to  carry  all  to  the  same  goal, 
or  to  stop  all  at  the  same  place.  Let  not  the 
attempt  of  equalizing  men's  belief  be  carried 
to  extremes;  Christian  knowledge  need  not 
be  carried  beyond  the  bounds  to  which  the 
heart  can  send  the  warmth  and  life  of  Chris- 
tian affections.  There  is  nothing  now  so 
much  needed  by  Christianity  from  its  profes- 
sors as  an  earnest  exemplification  of  Christ's 
teachings.  This  would  preach  louder  than  a 
thousand  voices ;  this  would  be  more  eloquent 
than  ten  thousand  volumes ;  this  would  carry 
conviction  where  no  human  instrumentality 
could  ever  penetrate. 


139 


THE  ESTABLISHED  CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND— ITS  ABUSES 
AT  THE  REFORMATION— ITS  NEGLECT  OF  THE  POOR 
AND  THE  SUFFERING. 

We  admit  that  other  men,  clothed  with 
powers  similar  to  those  wielded  by  the  Ro- 
mish ecclesiastics,  would  equally  have  abused 
them.  The  very  first  steps  of  the  Reforma- 
tion afford  striking  examples.  In  no  country 
had  the  religious  liberality  of  Catholic  laity 
been  displayed  on  a  larger  scale  than  in  Eng- 
land. This  munificence,  in  the  course  of  seve- 
ral centuries  previous  to  the  Reformation,  had 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy  quite  a  large 
proportion  of  the  best  estates  in  land  of  that 
kingdom.  The  tendency  to  this  kind  of  gene- 
rosity, under  priestly  instigation,  became  so 
great  that  legislative  intervention  became 
necessary  to  restrain  it.  The  immense  estates 
thus  given  to  the  church  were,  in  a  large  de- 
gree, expressly  bestowed  for  charitable  pur- 


140    CATHOLIC  APPORTIONMENT  OF  THE  SPOILS. 


poses^  the  fulfilment  of  which  the  givers  sup- 
posed would  assist  to  rescue  their  souls  from 
the  fires  of  purgatory.  The  bishops  and 
priests^  who  knew  what  was  necessary  on  that 
score,  made  what  may  be  termed,  all  things 
considered,  a  very  fair  distribution  of  these 
spoils.  They  settled,  as  the  law  of  appor- 
tionment, that  the  bishops  should  have  one- 
fourth  ;  the  priests  one-fourth ;  for  repair  of 
churches  one-fourth )  and  the  remaining  one- 
fourth  to  the  poor  and  the  other  general  pur- 
poses for  which  the  whole  was  expressly  given. 
This  distribution  was,  in  some  instances,  or 
according  to  some  authorities,  one-third  to  the 
clergy,  one-third  for  repair  of  churches,  and 
one-third  to  purposes  of  charity.  At  the  pe- 
riod of  the  Reformation,  when  Henry  YIII. 
assumed  the  headship  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land, all  these  immense  estates  were  confis- 
cated and  conferred  upon  the  bishops  and 
other  clergy  and  leaders  of  the  great  reform. 
All  that  was  given  to  the  no]3ility  and  gentry 
has  from  that  day  to  the  present  been  held  as 


ENGLISH  SEQUESTRATION  OF  THE  SPOILS.      141 


private  property,  without  the  slightest  regard 
to  the  trusts  upon  which  the  grants  were  ori- 
ginally made.  All  that  was  given  to  the 
English  bishops  and  clergy  has  remained  the 
property  of  the  establishment  to  this  day.  Its 
yearly  value  is  variously  estimated,  but  is 
safely  put  at  fifty  millions  of  dollars.  Not  the 
slightest  regard  has  been  paid  by  these  bishops 
and  clergy,  any  more  than  the  lay  grantees, 
to  the  trusts  under  which  these  estates  were 
granted.  The  Catholic  clergy  applied  a  fourth, 
or  even  a  third,  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor; 
the  English  clergy  have  retained  the  whole 
as  their  exclusive  perquisite.  Thus  arise  the 
enormous  revenues  of  the  English  bishops, 
which  are  a  standing  reproach  to  Christianity 
in  a  country  where  millions  upon  millions  are 
groaning  in  poverty,  with  a  clear  right  to  all 
the  relief  these  riches  could  afford. 

From  its  first  establishment,  the  English 
church  not  only  appropriated  the  funds  of  the 
poor,  but  cast  the  charge  of  the  poor  upon  the 
secular  arm,  where  it  remains  to  this  day.    It 


142        PENALTIES    OF   POVERTY   IX   ENGLAND. 


would  be  difficult  to  point  out  in  tlie  history 
of  the  papacj^,  any  more  daring  and  fla- 
grant disregard  of  Christian  principles  than 
this.  The  Eomish  church  in  all  ages^  and  in 
all  countries,  has  admitted  the  claims  of  the 
poor,  and  also  the  obligations  which  those 
claims  imposed.  The  Protestant  church  of 
England  commenced  its  career  by  seizing  their 
estates,  and  turning  the  poor  over  to  the  ten- 
der mercies  of  the  government.  The  legisla- 
tion for  the  poor  was  characterized,  during  the 
reign  of  Henry  YIII.,  by  its  fixing  upon  the 
unemployed  poor  the  epithet  of  '^  vagabonds," 
and  by  inflicting  the  penalties  of  whipping, 
cropping,  branding,  and  death  for  the  offence 
of  being  vagabonds.  Many  thousands  were 
hung  in  the  reign  of  that  first  head  of  the 
English  church  for  being  vagabonds ;  that  is, 
unemployed  or  idle  poor.  No  doubt  the  dis- 
solution of  the  monasteries  and  other  religious 
houses  had  sent  forth  a  host  of  inmates 
stripped  of  all  means  of  support,  and  had  de- 
prived of  their  customary  employments  vast 


ENGLISH    POOR   LAWS.  143 


troops  of  labourers,  wliose  services  were  re- 
placed by  others  more  favoured  by  the  new 
occupants  of  the  estates,  and  had  driven  away 
in  despair  hosts  of  poor  who  had  lived  upon 
the  regular  alms  of  the  religious  establish- 
ments.    The  mischiefs  which  arose  from  dis- 
charging such  a  multitude  of  destitute  paupers 
upon  the  community  must  have  been  grave 
enough  to  require  all  the  patience  and  all  the 
wisdom  of  the  public  authorities,  •  and  more 
especially  as  the  subject  Avas  new  to  them. 
No  wonder  these  persons,  so  suddenly  and  ut- 
terly stripped  of  their  only  comfort  and  hopes 
for  this  life,  became  unruly,  wandered  like 
vagabonds,  and  rendered  stringent  measures 
necessary  to  keep  them  in  awe.     This  is  no 
•plsLce  to  write  the  history  of  the  English  poor, 
of  the  legislation  applied  to  them,  nor  of  the 
administration   of  the   poor-laws;    whatever 
may  be  said  of  the  wisdom  or  the  mercy  or 
the  statesmanship  displayed  in  the  treatment 
of  English  poor,  the  whole  constitutes  such  a 
disgrace  to  the  established  church,  and  to  Pro- 


144  THE  POOR-nOUSE,  STIGMA  OF  PROTESTANTISM. 


testantism,  as  can  never  be  adequately  clia- 
racterized.  During  three  centuries,  she  has 
shut  her  eyes  from  beholding,  and  shut  her 
ears  from  hearing,  and  withheld  her  hands 
from  removing  the  woes  of  ten  generations  of 
increasing  millions  of  suffering  poor.  She  has 
not  fed  them  nor  clothed  them,  nor  visited 
them  in  sickness  nor  in  prison ;  she  has  left 
them  in  charge  of  the  national  authorities. 
And  what  have  these  done  ?  In  this  long  pe- 
riod, what  have  they  devised  for  the  poor  ? 
They  have  long  since  reduced  the  treatment 
of  paupers  to  a  system  which  has  since  been 
adopted  for  criminals.  They  have  invented 
the  poor-house,  that  stigma  of  Protestantism ; 
they  have  degraded  the  poor  to  the  level  of 
the  worst  criminals ;  they  have  made  charity 
dependent  on  the  parish  boundaries;  they 
have  enacted  a  scene  of  protracted  and  bitter 
litigation  to  determine  which  parish  may  be 
acquitted  of  the  duty  of  relieving  the  poor ; 
they  spend  as  much  in  efforts  to  cast  off  the 
burden  of  a  poor  family  as  would  relieve  scores 


SUCH    A    POLICY    DISGRACEFUL.  145 


of  families ;  they  let  out  the  poor  by  contract 
to  the  maintenance  of  a  contractor ;  they  look 
upon  the  support  of  the  poor  as  a  grievous 
burden,  and  regard  it  as  a  matter  of  business, 
in  which  economy  must  rule,  until  the  lowest 
cost  at  which  life  can  be  sustained  is  found ; 
and  accordingly  the  allowance  of  the  poor  has 
gone  far  below  that  of  the  soldier  or  sailor,  or 
even  the  thief  and  murderer  in  prison.  They 
regard  the  pauper  as  a  public  evil,  the  cost  of 
which  is  to  be  kept  at  the  lowest  possible 
point ;  and  they  deny  the  obligation  of  such 
legislation  as  might  have  a  tendency  to  amend 
the  condition  of  their  hordes  of  poor. 

Whether  the  English  authorities  have  in  all 
this  fulfilled  their  duties  as  legislators  and 
governors,  is  a  question  into  which  we  cannot 
enter.  But  the  conduct  of  the  established 
church,  which  has  for  centuries  looked  upon 
this  scene  of  famine  and  nakedness  and  poor- 
house  imprisonment,  without  an  effort  as  a 
church  to  fulfil  her  Christian  obligations  to  the 
poor,  is  such  as  no  language  can  with  proper 

13 


146   THE  RICH  MAN  IN  HELL  LIFTED  UP  HIS  EYES. 


severity  stigmatize.  The  English  poor  have 
been  increasing  in  comparative  numbers  and 
destitution  from  the  Reformation  to  the  pre- 
sent hour ;  and  during  this  period,  the  confis- 
cated revenues  of  the  poor  in  the  keeping  of 
the  church  have  been  increasing.  What  pos- 
sible affinity  can  that  church,  as  such,  have 
with  the  religion  of  Christ,  which,  whilst  it 
absorbs  the  living  of  the  poor,  repudiates  all 
care  of  them  ?  Could  such  a  church  appear 
before  Christ,  without  hearing  the  command, 
"  Sell  all  that  thou  hast  and  give  fo  the  poor, 
and  come  follow  me  ?"  This  is  the  lightest  re- 
buke that  is  conceivable  in  the  circumstances. 
But  as  this  command  was  given  to  one  whose 
heart  was  merely  too  much  fixed  on  riches 
which  were  his  own,  the  case  of  the  church 
of  England  and  the  poor  who  are  pining  in 
want,  and  dying  at  her  door,  may  be  much 
more  fitly  illustrated  by  the  parable  of  Laza- 
rus and  the  rich  man,  who,  for  his  hardness 
of  heart,  "in  hell  lifted  up  his  eyes  in  tor- 
ments."    Even  this  does  not  reach  the  enor- 


HALF  OF  MY  GOODS  I  GIVE  TO  THE  POOR.       147 


mity  of  the  case ;  for  this  rich  man's  goods 
were  his  own.  The  church  of  England  turned 
the  poor  out  of  doors,  and  took  possession  of 
their  houses  and  their  goods ;  and  whilst  re- 
velling in  the  enjoyment  of  these  ill-gotten 
gains,  myriads  of  paupers,  lying  at  her  gate, 
are  suffering  the  extremities  of  sickness,  na- 
kedness, and  want.  If  they  ever  reach  Abra- 
ham's bosom,  it  will  not  be  from  any  instruc- 
tion or  help  given  them  by  the  establishment. 
But  whether  they  do  or  not,  who  can  doubt 
that  it  will  be  less  tolerable  for  that  church 
in  the  next  world  than  for  the  rich  man  who 
neglected  Lazarus? 

When  the  truth  first  flashed  on  Zaccheus, 
the  tax-gatherer  of  Judea,  he  broke  out  in- 
stantly, and  said  to  Christ,  "  Behold,  Lord, 
the  half  of  my  goods  I  give  to  the  poor-  and 
if  I  have  taken  any  thing  from  any  man  by 
false  accusation,  I  restore  him  fourfold."  If 
this  be  the  rule  of  restitution  for  a  wrongful 
taking,  it  will  not  be  hard  to  G.x  the  sum 


148    THE    ESTABLISHED    CHURCH   OF   ENGLAND. 

which  is  due  to  the  poor  of  England  from  the 
English  church. 

If  our  tone  seems  harsh  towards  the  church 
of  England,  it  is  merely  because  the  facts  jus- 
tify it.  We  believe  no  sect,  as  such,  can  vin- 
dicate all  its  acts.  It  is  the  more  just  to  select 
that  church  for  remark,  in  such  an  essay  as 
this,  because  it  imbodies  what  is  regarded  as 
the  flower  of  Protestantism.  The  members 
of  that  church  are  distinguished  throughout 
the  world  for  wealth,  liberality,  learning,  and 
many  high  qualities.  It  is  fair  to  take  them 
as  a  favourable  sample  of  the  fruits  of  the  Ke- 
formation.  We  cannot  say  how  far  individuals 
or  multitudes  are  responsible  for  the  sins  of  the 
church  vfith  which  they  are  connected ;  but 
we  know  that  very  many,  in  all  ages  of  Chris- 
tianity, have  distinguished  themselves  far 
above  the  errors  of  their  respective  churches. 
No  church  has  more  to  boast  in  this  respect 
than  that  of  England.  It  is  well  that  the  eter- 
nal welfare  of  the  members  does  not  depend 
on  the  character  of  the  church  to  which  they 


THE  PAUPER  AND  THE  CRIMINAL.     149 


may  belong.  If  so,  what  cliurcli  or  sect  could 
save  its  members  ?  Not  one ! — but  least  of  all, 
perhaps,  the  church  of  England. 

A  natural  result  of  this  wicked  neglect  of 
the  poor  in  England  by  the  churchy  has  been, 
that  the  poor  in  that  country  are  regarded 
differently,  and  treated  differently,  from  what 
they  are  in  any  other  nation.  What  is  not 
deemed  the  duty  of  the  church  has  ceased  to 
be  regarded  as  the  duty  of  individuals.  The 
poor  are  restrained  to  the  limits  of  their  own 
parishes,  under  penalty  of  starvation  or  being 
carried  back  by  the  authorities  to  their  own 
limits.  They  are  not  permitted  to  ask  alms. 
They  are  turned  off  the  land  in  England,  and 
obliged  to  take  refuge  in  the  cities,  working  at 
wages  which  barely  sustain  life,  to  swell  the 
products  of  the  manufactories.  They  are, 
without  judge  or  jury,  convicted  of  poverty, 
sent  to  the  poor-house,  where  husband  and 
wife  and  children  are  separated  and  put  to 
hard  labour.  The  severity  of  this  sentence  is 
fully  as  great  as  that  which  awaits  criminals 


13^ 


150     THE    PRACTICES    AVORKED    INTO    A    THEORY. 


under  the  present  improved  system  of  prison 
discipline.  The  poor  are  regarded  as  a  burden 
upon  society,  to  be  diminished  or  got  rid  of  by 
any  course  short  of  murder.  They  are  not 
deemed  to  have  any  claims  as  fellow-men  or 
fellow-christianSj  in  a  Christian  land.  Eng- 
land has  a  blessed  constitution.  She  has  long 
enjoyed  the  most  wise  and  vigorous  adminis- 
tration in  the  world,  under  all  the  advantages 
of  a  mild  climate  and  productive  soil,  and  yet 
paupers  not  6nly  exist,  but  have  greatly  in- 
creased. It  is  plain  they  are  an  inevitable  evil : 
nothing  more  can  be  done  but  by  all  proper 
means  to  prevent  the  increase  of  those  who 
are  only  born  to  be  burdens  upon  the  commu- 
nity. This  is  the  English  feeling  in  regard  to 
the  poor. 

It  was  reserved  for  a  clergyman  of  the  es- 
tablished church  to  work  up  this  feeling  and 
these  views  into  a  system  of  philosophy.  The 
sum  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Malthus's  work  on  po- 
pulation is  thus  given  in  his  own  words : — 
"  A  man  who  is  born  into  a  world  already 


THE    ENGLISH    DOCTRINE    IN    MALTHUS.        151 


possessed^  if  lie  cannot  get  subsistence  from 
his  parents,  on  whom  he  has  a  just  demand, 
and  if  the  society  does  not  want  his  labour, 
has  no  claim  of  right  to  the  smallest  portion 
of  food,  and,  in  fact,  has  no  business  to  be 
where  he  is.  At  nature's  mighty  feast  there 
is  no  cover  for  him.  She  tells  him  to  be  gone, 
and  will  quickly  execute  her  own  orders,  if  he 
do  not  work  upon  the  compassion  of  some 
of  her  guests.  If  these  guests  get  up  and 
make  room  for  him,  other  intruders  immedi- 
ately aj^pear,  demanding  the  same  favour. 
The  report  of  a  provision  for  all  that  come 
fills  the  hall  with  numerous  claimants.  The 
order  and  harmony  of  the  feast  is  disturbed  : 
the  plenty  that  before  reigned  is  changed  into 
scarcity :  and  the  happiness  of  the  guests  is 
destroyed  by  the  spectacle  of  misery  and  de- 
pendence in  every  part  of  the  hall,  and  by  the 
clamorous  importunity  of  those  who  are  justly 
enraged  at  not  finding  the  provision  they  had 
been  taught  to  expect.  The  guests  learn  too 
late  their  error  in  counteracting  those  strict 


152       THE   REMEDY    PROPOSED    BY   MALTHUS. 


orders  to  all  intruders  issued  by  the  great 
mistress  of  the  feast,  who,  wishing  that  all  her 
guests  should  have  plenty,  and  knowing  that 
she  could  not  provide  for  unlimited  numbers, 
humanely  refused  to  admit  fresh  comers  when 
her  table  was  already  full."* 

Can  inhumanity  go  a  step  farther  ?  Can 
disobedience  and  contempt  of  the  Divine  com- 
mand to  love  our  neighbour  as  ourself  imagine 
a  farther  step  ?  It  is  a  total  denial  of  "  the 
Fatherhood  of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of 
man,"  and  consequently  a  total  abjuration  of 
Christianity.  The  remedial  measure  proposed 
by  the  Kev.  Mr.  Malthus  is  in  strict  accord- 
ance with  his  theory.  He  proposes  that,  notice 
being  given,  all  children  begotten  afterwards 
should  in  every  event  be  denied  all  official 
and  private  relief,  or  charity  of  any  kind. 
If  they  perish,  the  responsibility  will  rest 
with  the  parents  who  brought  them  into  the 
world  after  due  warning  of  the  consequences. 

*  Malthus  on  Population,  first  edition ;  and  see  sixth  edition, 
vol.  ii.  p.  337. 


ENGLISH  THEORY  OF  POVERTY.      153 


By  this  means,  the  intruders  into  the  hall  of 
the  great  feast  of  life  would  be  ra|)idly  starved 
out  of  existence,  the  order  and  harmony  of  the 
feast  restored,  and  the  "happiness  of  the 
guests  be  no  longer  destroyed  by  the  spec- 
tacle of  misery"  around  them. 

\If  this  is  not  the  doctrine  of  the  church 
of  England  in  regard  to  the  poor,  it  is  the 
philosophy  which  has  grown  out  of  her  neglect 
to  teach  and  exemplify  the  great  duty  of  Chris- 
tian charity  :  if  it  is  not  her  doctrine,  it  is  the 
very  essence  and  theory  of  her  practice.* 


THE  SPIRIT  OF  PROTESTANTISM  AT  LARGE.— ENGLISH 

PROTESTANTISM. 

This  subject  might  justly  be  swelled  into 
volumes.  We  might  proceed  to  show  that 
other  Protestants  besides  those  of  England 
have  fallen  short  of  their  duty  to  the  })oor ; 
that  they  have  not  apprehended,  taught,  nor 


154  PKOTESTANT    ERRORS, 


practised  the  precepts  of  charity  as  inculcated 
by  Christ  and  his  apostles :  that,  split  into  nu- 
merous sects,  they  have  been  far  more  zealous 
in  defining  and  defending  their  various  shades 
of  belief  than  in  fulfilling  Christian  duties : 
that  they  have  divided  the  vineyard  which 
has  been  given  them  to  cultivate,  -  into 
innumerable  subdivisions,  and  have  spent 
in  contests  about  enclosures  the  time  and 
talents  which  they  should  have  given  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  vines:  that  they  have  buried 
themselves  in  theology,  and  neglected  the 
plainest  teachings  of  Him  whose  name  they 
bear :  that  they  have  brought  reproach  upon 
their  Master  by  exhibiting  all  manner  of  un- 
charitableness  in  their  mutual  bearing  to- 
wards each  other :  that  wdiile  they  utterly 
scout  the  claim  of  the  pope  to  infallibility, 
they  severally  put  forth  pretensions  in  regard 
to  their  own  standards  and  creeds  as  exacting 
as  those  of  the  pope;  and  whilst  they  thus 
claim  to  be  undoubtedly  and  severally  right, 
they  have,  almost  without  exception,  exalted 


AND    OMISSIONS.  155 


their  own  creeds,  catechisms,  confessions,  Htur- 
gies,  and  forms  of  service  above  the  precepts 
of  their  Master :  that  they  have  built  temples 
without  number,  and  have  preached  the  gos- 
pel, but  not  for  nor  to  the  poor :  that  whilst 
all  religious  eloquence  has  been  cultivated 
with  great  assiduity,  they  have  forgotten  that 
"  though  they  speak  with  the  tongues  of  an- 
gels, and  have  not  charity,  they  are  as  sound- 
ing brass  :"  that  whilst  they  have  multiplied 
religious  books  beyond  all  enumeration,  and 
pursued  biblical  lore  with  a  zeal  and  success 
truly  wonderful,  they  have  not  remembered 
that  "  though  they  had  the  gift  of  prophecy, 
and  understood  all  mysteries  and  all  know- 
ledge, and  though  they  had  all  faith  so  that 
they  could  remove  mountains,  and  had  not 
charity,  they  are  nothing :"  that  whilst  their 
liberality  has  frequently  been  large  and  greatly 
diversified,  and  whilst  they  have  suffered  for 
the  truth's  sake,  they  have  forgotten  that 
"  though  they  bestow  all  their  goods  to  feed 
the  poor,  and  give  their  bodies  to  be  burned. 


156  CHURCHES    CAN    GLORY    IN    NOTHING. 


and  have  not  charity,  it  could  profit  them  no- 
thing." 

There  is,  indeed,  no  church  nor  sect  which 
can  glory  in  its  purity  or  perfection  before 
God :  there  is  none  which  would  not  be  ut- 
terly condemned  under  the  application  of  the 
same  rules  by  which  men  must  be  finally 
judged.  Let  any  of  them  give  account  of  their 
stewardship  in  the  administration  of  the  great 
duty  of  Christian  charity,  and  see  how  far, 
how  very  far  they  have  fallen  below  the  re- 
quirement. If  this  subject  were  pursued  by 
some  one  fitted  for  the  task,  the  picture  drawn 
could  not  but  lower  that  self-righteous  spirit  in 
which  many  Protestant  churches  so  freely  in- 
dulge. They  would  find  that  we  may  be  very 
clear  in  perceiving  error  in  others,  without 
being  right  ourselves ;  and  that  so  little  room 
is  there  for  any  to  indulge  in  self-righteousness 
before  God,  that,  for  the  most  part,  those  who 
are  most  positive  and  assuming  are  deepest  in 
error.  It  may  be  well  to  think  that  whilst 
the  great  mass  of  Protestant  theology  may  be 


RETUKN   TO    ENGLISH    CHURCH.  157 


in  the  main  correct  as  far  as  it  goes,  yet  it 
must  be  fatally  deficient,  because  it  has  no 
soul.  The  statue  may  be  faultless  in  its  out- 
lines, proportions,  and  faithfulness  to  the  truth, 
but  it  is  cold,  hard,  unyielding,  and  without 
sensation  or  affections. 

The  whole  field  of  Protestantism  being  too 
wide  for  our  purpose,  we  return  to  England, 
and  confine  our  remarks  to  what  is  observa- 
ble there,  not  in  an  invidious  spirit,  but  be- 
cause the  facts  are  most  easily  ascertained  and 
verified,  and  because,  if  English  Protestants, 
with  their  world-wide  reputation  for  liberality, 
have  failed  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  Christian 
charity,  there  will  be  small  ground  for  others 
to  stand  upon  in  the  day  of  scrutiny. 

If  we  have  been  successful  in  bringing  to 
view  the  pressing  obligations  of  our  duties  to 
our  fellow-men  in  poverty,  in  sickness,  and  in 
confinement,  few  will  deny  the  propriety  of 
immediate  obedience  to  every  such  call.  But 
(^whilst  we  cheerfully  give  the  cup  of  water  to 
the  thirsty,  whilst  we  feed  those  who  are  actu- 


14 


158         CHARITY  NOT  ONLY  FOR  INDIVIDUALS, 


ally  starving,  and  clotlie  those  vrho  are  actu- 
ally naked  or  in  ragS;,  because  •  these  duties 
are  specifically  enjoined,  does  not  the  great 
law,  "  love  thy  neighbour  as  thj^self/'  claim 
something  more  than  these  temporary  acts  of 
kindness  and  relief.  We  must  not  let  these 
occasions  of  charity  slip ;  we  must  not  turn 
our  back  upon  those  who  are  suffering  for 
what  we  can  give  them.  But  are  we  not 
equally  bound  to  exert  ourselves  to  afford  per- 
manent succour — to  raise  our  suffering  bre- 
thren to  the  same  level  in  comfort  with  our- 
selves ?  We  owe  a  duty  not  only  in  every 
particular  case,  but  we  owe  a  debt  of  love  to 
every  individual ;  and  we  are  bound  to  pay 
that  debt,  not  only  in  special  acts  of  kindness, 
but  in  general  efforts,  not  merely  for  the  bene- 
fit of  individuals,  but  of  the  whole  human 
family.  The  obligations  of  Christian  charity 
are  as  wide  as  the  field  of  our  action  and  of 
our  influence ;  but  we  are  not  acquitted  of  these 
obligations  by  our  individual  efforts.  We  are 
bound  as  Christians  to  unite  in  the  great  work 


BUT    roil    MULTITUDES.  159 


of  bettering  the  condition  of  the  human 
family.  That  which  is  the  duty  of  every  in- 
dividual Christian  in  reference  to  his  fellow- 
men,  is  the  duty  of  the  whole  body ;  and  the 
obligation  upon  the  body  is  increased  with  the 
power  and  opportunity  of  doing  good. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  any  commu- 
nity wdiere  the  individuals  are  full  of  the  be- 
nign spirit  of  their  great  Exemplar,  the  whole 
mass  will  be  enlivened  and  inspired  by  the 
same  beneficence.  If  the  community  has  not 
performed  its  duty,  the  responsibility  lies  upon 
the  individuals. 

We  have  thus  imperfectly  referred  to  the 
obligations  of  charity,  because  few  will  be  dis- 
posed to  question  either  their  nature  or  ex- 
tent. What  has  England,  under  such  respon- 
sibilities, done  for  her  millions  of  poor — poor 
so  crushed  and  broken  and  pressed  down, 
that  the  picture  transcends  the  j)ower  of  pen- 
cil, of  pen,  or  of  tongue  ?  For  those  poor  Avho 
have  for  three  centuries  been  increasing  in 
proportional  numbers,  and  sinking  to  a  deeper 


160     WHAT    HAS    BEEN    DONE    FOR   THE    SOCIAL 


and  deej)er  degradation,  wliat  has  been  done  ? 
"We  cannot  reply,  "  notliing  !"  for  though  mul- 
titudes have  sunk,  from  age  to  age,  under  the 
ills  of  230verty,  yet  masses  have  been  kept  alive 
to  hand  down  their  woes  to  increasing  gene- 
rations succeeding  them.  The  church  having 
repudiated  the  charge,  the  government  has 
discharged  the  duty  of  saving,  perhaps,  the 
greater  number  of  these  outcasts  from  death 
by  starvation  or  exposure.  But  what  mea- 
sures have  been  devised  to  lift  these  multi- 
tudes from  their  depths,  and  restore  them  to 
the  level  of  livino;  bv  their  labour  ?  Where 
shall  we  find  the  traces  of  any  great  move- 
ment among  English  Christians  to  redeem 
their  poor  from  the  chains  of  their  hoj^eless 
bondage  ?  They  rouse  themselves  into  ener- 
getic action  to  abolish  the  slave-trade — to 
emancipate  the  slaves  of  their  West  Indian  co- 
lonies ;  they  send  Bibles  by  millions  over  the 
whole  earth ;  they  send  missionaries  to  preach 
Christ  to  every  people ;  yet  how  little  will  all 
this  profit  them,  if  they  have  neglected  charity 


ELEVATION   OF   THE    POOtt   IN   ENGLAND.      161 


at  home.  Christianity  can  only  be  successfully 
propagated  by  those  who  practise  it.  English 
Christians  have  done  nothing  worth  naming 
to  redeem  the  poor  from  their  abject  condi- 
tion. They  have  looked  upon  their  myriads 
of  paupers  in  hoj^eless  inaction  :  the  problem 
of  relief  seemed  too  difficult  for  solution^  much 
more  of  accomplishment. 

The  church  of  England  has  signally  failed 
in  the  fulfilment  of  her  chief  duty.  Besides 
having  left  unperformed  every  other  duty  to 
the  poor,  she  has,  worst  of  all,  not  preached 
the  gospel  to  the  poor.  Whatever  pre-emi- 
nence the  Papist  may  claim  over  the  Episcopa- 
lian in  this  respect,  even  the  Papal  church 
has  in  this  flillen  very  far  behind  the  line  of 
duty  j  and  so,  indeed,  has  every  other  church 
or  sect.  The  truth  is,  the  work  of  the  real 
disciples  of  Christ  must  be  performed  by  them 
individually,  and  not  by  the  church.  The 
good  which  flows  from  w^orks  of  love  and  cha- 
rity must  benefit  the  giver  as  well  as  the  re- 
ceiver.   No  church  has  ever  discharged,  in  its 


14* 


162  THE  CHURCH  WILL  NEVER  DO  HER  DUTY. 


collective  character,  the  duty  of  its  members 
in  their  individual  capacities.  Nor  can  that 
love  of  men  ever  dwell  in  a  corporation  or 
ecclesiastical  organization  which  should  glow 
in  the  bosom  of  individual  Christians.  It  was 
not  so  intended,  and  is  not  so  inculcated. 
Every  Christian  association,  however,  of  which 
the  members  are  fully  warmed  up  to  their 
separate  work,  will  be  found  partaking,  in  the 
mass,  of  the  life  vvdiich  pervades  the  indi- 
viduals. The  English  church  will  never  per- 
form her  duty  to  the  poor,  because  she  has 
great  possessions,  and  will  continue  to  turn  a 
deaf  ear  to  the  command — "  One^  thing  thou 
lackest :  go  thy  way,  sell  whatsoever  thou 
hast,  and  give  to  the  poor."  How  can  that  be 
a  church  of  Christ,  w^hich  has  great  riches  and 
yet  rejects  the  claims  of  the  poor? 

But  whatever  may  be  said  of  the  guilt  of 
the  church,  if  a  church  can  be  guilty,  the  re- 
sponsibility lies  upon  its  members.  They  are 
the  real  stewards,  to  whom  the  various  talents 
are  committed  for  wliich  account  will  be  ren- 


INDIVIDUAL    OBLIGATIONS.  163 


dered  at  the  coming  of  our  Lord.  The  Chris- 
tians of  England  are  bound  to  relieve  the 
poor  to  the  extent  of  all  their  possessions,  and 
to  perform  every  other  duty  towards  them  re- 
quired by  the  precepts  of  Christ,  whatever 
may  be  the  conduct  of  church  dignitaries  or 
political  authorities.  Nothing  but  performance 
can  acquit  them  of  this  obligation.  That  per- 
formance would  sweep  from  existence  every 
vestige  of  the  present  unchristian  system. 


THE  DUTY  OF  DEVISING  AND  CARRYING  INTO  EFFECT 
PLANS  FOR  THE  GENERAL  AMELIORATION  AND  PER- 
MANENT RELIEF  OF  THE  SUFFERING  AND  DEGRA- 
DED CLASSES. 

But  the  duty  of  English  Christians  is  not 
circumscribed,  as  we  have  insisted,  to  reliev- 
ing the  immediate  and  pressing  wants  of  the 
poor,  nor  even  to  the  present  teaching  them 
the  way  of  life.  Their  numbers  are  so  great, 
their  degradation  so  low,  their  oppression  so 


164      MUST   NOT    SAY    THE    EVIL   IS    HOPELESS. 


heavy,  tliat  those  whose  duty  it  is  to  minister 
to  them,  can  only  discharge  their  obhgation 
by  adopting  measures  for  permanent  emanci- 
pation from  evils  so  enormous.  If  we  should 
do  unto  others  as  we  would  have  them  do 
unto  us,  if  we  should  love  our  neighbours  as 
ourselves,  we  cannot  escape  the  responsibility 
of  undertaking,  in  full  earnest,  the  regenera- 
tion of  the  whole  body  of  poor.  This  has 
never  occupied  the  minds  of  English  Chris- 
tians as  it  should :  the  feeling  has  been  too 
much  that  to  which  we  have  above  referred  : 
'  Our  laws  and  institutions  are  the  best  in  the 
world;  the  result,  visible  in  our  hordes  of 
paupers,  is  inevitable :  there  is  no  remedy 
but  some  check  to  this  over-growing  popula- 
tion.' No  Christian  who  knows  his  Master's 
will  should  hold  such  language,  or  entertain 
such  thoughts.  In  the  eye  of  the  Christian, 
all  men  constitute  one  brotherhood,  and  there 
is  no  avoiding  the  conclusion  to  which  this 
truth  leads.  The  poor  have  as  much  right  to 
live  as  the  rich;  and  the   rich  are  equally 


LIMITS    OF   PAUPERISM.  165 


bound  to  help  thenij  whether  they  give  a  good 
reason  for  coming  into  the  world  or  not.    The 
same  Lord  who  has  given  freely  to  one,  and 
denied  to  others,  is  over  all,  and  has  given  the 
proper  rules  of  action.     How,  then,  can  those 
who  have  wealth,  or  power,  or  influence,  or 
wisdom,  or  knowledge,  refuse  to  entertain  as 
the  great  question  of  their  lives,— What  shall 
be  done  for  the  permanent  amelioration  of  the 
condition  of  the  poor  ?     That  in  any  possible 
state  of  society  there  must  always  be  paupers, 
cannot  be  doubted ;  but  in  every  society  where 
Christian   duties    are   discharged  with   even 
moderate  faithfulness,  the  poor  will  be  reduced 
to  the  smallest  number  possible.     Is  this  so 
in  England  ?     Is  it  necessary — is  it  unavoid- 
able, that  there  should  be  three  millions  of 
suffering  poor   in   Great  Britain?     Is  it  in- 
evitable that  every  tenth  person  should  be  a 
pauper  ?    We  say,  no  :  that  there  should  not 
be  in  Great  Britain  nor  in  Ireland  more  than 
one  pauper  to  every  hundred  inhabitants.   We 
say  that  this  subject  is  seldom,  if  ever,  ap- 


166  THE   LABOR   OF   GREAT   BRITAIN 


proaclied,  as  it   should   be,  in   its    Christian 
aspect. 

All  the  world  hears  of  the  wealth  of  Great 
Britain.  It  is  visible  on  every  side  to  those 
who  traverse  the  country.  But  all  this  wealth 
yields  no  income  without  labour :  the  indus- 
try of  the  people  earns  the  enormous  sum  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  dollars,  paid 
in  annual  revenue  to  the  government,  and 
five  times  the  amount,  which  goes  to  swell  the 
pockets  of  the  rich.  The  income  of  the  church 
is  large,  because  it  is  drawn  from  the  work 
of  a  large  number  of  labourers.  The  large 
landholders  are  rich,  because  they  receive  the 
avails  of  the  industry  of  a  multitude  of  la- 
bourers. The  manufacturers  drive  a  large 
business,  and  make  large  profits  at  times,  be- 
cause they  command  the  bones  and  sinews  of 
as  many  labourers  as  they  please  to  em|)loy. 
It  is  labour  which  makes  wealth  available : 
without  it,  neither  land,  nor  houses,  nor  ma- 
chinery, nor  mines,  nor  gold  and  silver,  nor 
stocks  of  any  description,  could  yield  any  per- 


IS    DEEPLY    MORTGAGED    TO    A    FEW.  167 


manent  income.  The  labour  of  Great  Britain 
is  absorbed  by  a  comparatively  few.  Their 
income  is  large,  and  the  streams  of  wealth  and 
liberal  expenditure  being  large,  the  riches  of 
the  country  are  rated  accordingly.  But  the 
nation  is  none  the  richer  for  this  unequal  dis- 
tribution of  income.  England  no  longer  ap- 
pears so  rich,  if  you  divide  her  wealth  by  her 
population  :  other  countries  will  excel  her  in 
wealth  by  that  rule.  The  industry  of  the 
people  is  deeply  mortgaged  to  produce  this 
result.  Masses  of  labourers  are  kept  in 
hopeless  poverty  and  dependence;  they  are 
allowed  the  scantiest  subsistence  which  will 
support  life,  that  high  taxes  and  high  rents 
may  be  paid,  and  that  goods  may  be  manu- 
factured at  prices  so  low  as  to  secure  them  a 
market  throughout  the  world.  So  long  as 
this  system  is  maintained,  there  can  indeed  be 
no  amelioration  of  the  bondage  of  the  poor, 
whose  labour  must  go  to  make  up  this  large 
annual  product ;  and  it  is  because  no  sugges- 
tion of  any  change  in  this  system  is  tolerated, 


168         AMELIORATION    IMPLIES    NO   ROBBERY. 


that  the  lot  of  the  poor  seems  so  hopeless  in 
the  eyes  of  Englishmen. 

Such  a  policy,  whether  constructed  upon  the 
wisdom  of  this  world  or  not,  cannot  be  regarded 
in  the  light  of  Christian  truths  without  utter 
detestation.  It  is  a  duty  from  which  Chris- 
tians cannot  escape,  to  search  for  the  best  mode 
of  raising  their  brethren  from  this  political  de- 
gradation. The  amelioration  sought  implies 
neither  revolution,  bloodshed,  nor  robbery :  it 
demands  adequate  remuneration  for  labour : 
it  implies  that  the  bones  and  sinews  of  the 
people  must  not  be  sacrificed  to  that  infatu- 
ation for  foreign  commerce  which  subjects 
them  to  the  competition  of  the  whole  world. 
Great  Britain  presses  her  goods  upon  the  mar- 
kets of  the  world,  and  keeps  prices  everywhere 
at  a  rate  ruinous  to  industry  :  she  keeps  the 
price  of  labour  at  home  at  such  a  point  as 
leaves  the  labourer  no  choice  but  death  or  the 
offered  wages  :  she  keeps  hosts  of  unemployed 
and  starving  labourers  always  pressing  on  the 
labour  market,  or  working  at  a  point  between 


LET  PROFESSION  BEAR  FRUIT.       169 


life  and  death,  to  sustain  that  commercial 
system  which  is  absorbing  the  vitals  of  the 
country.  Let  Great  Britain  add  five  pounds 
each  to  the  annual  wages  of  ten  millions  of  her 
poor  operatives,  and  it  will  add  fifty  millions 
sterling  to  her  trade,  because  the  whole  sum 
will  be  expended  at  home,  in  a  way  far  more 
beneficial  to  that  country  than  any  operation 
of  foreign  trade. 

If  English  Protestants  have  in  three  cen-  y 
turies  weeded  out  the  errors  and  supersti- 
tions of  Komanism ;  if  they  have  searched  the 
Scriptures  and  sifted  from  them  the  whole 
truth,  and  formed  a  system  of  Christian  theo- 
logy by  which  they  can  abide,  it  is  time  they 
should  bear  the  fruits  of  Christian  profession 
so  enlightened.  It  is  time  they  should  ex- 
emplify the  doctrines  of  their  Master,  and  hold 
up  that  exemplification  in  the  display  of  Eng- 
land's greatness  before  the  world.  This  is 
what  is  needed  to  send  Christianity  with  rapid 
pace  round  the  w^orld.  Let  those  deeds  of 
charity  which  are  the  legitimate  fruit  of  a 

15 


170  ACTS    SPEAK   LOUDER   THAN   WORDS. 


truly  Christian  spirit,  be  exhibited  in  England 
according  to  the  urgency  of  that  poverty 
which  calls  for  them,  and  according  to  the 
beauty  of  that  example  which  was  set  by  Him 
who  went  about  continually  ministering  to 
the  wants  of  the  poor,  and  the  missionary 
need  only  take  the  Bible  in  his  hands  and 
point  to  this  happy  fulfilment  of  its  precepts, 
to  insure  among  every  people  a  ready  obe- 
dience to  its  injunctions.  How  can  English ^^ 
Christians  preach  Christ  successfully  through- 
out the  world,  whilst  myriads  of  her  own 
people  are  left  to  pine  in  ignorance,  in  want 
and  utter  destitution  ?  Can  these  be  followers 
of  Christ,  that  permit  this  ? — must  be  asked, 
not  only  by  the  heathen  abroad,  but  by  the 
skeptic  or  worldling  at  home.  Every  indi- 
vidual Christian  of  Great  Britain  is  bound  to 
do  all  that  lie  can,  by  his  hand,  his  mind,  his 
voice  and  estate,  to  relieve  and  enlighten  the 
poor,  presently  and  permanently ;  so,  in  like 
manner,  is  the  whole  community  of  British 
Christians  bound  to  exert  their  united  ener- 


AN    EFFORT   INDISrENSABLE.  171 


gies  and  means  for  the  same  end.  Nothing 
less  can  acquit  their  obligations  or  fulfil 
their  duties. 

The  Christians  of  Great  Britain,  if  actu- 
ated by  this  spirit,  could  with  ease  guide 
the  counsels  of  the  nation:  they  would 
find  many,  very  many,  who  now  decline  a 
profession  of  Christianity,  prompt  to  engage 
with  them  in  this  great  work,  and  ready  to 
say,  This,  indeed,  convinces  us  of  the  reality 
and  truth  of  your  religion.  The  solution 
of  that  problem  which  involves  the  social 
and  religious  elevation  of  the  poor  can  never, 
be  reached  by  mere  human  wisdom;  but 
British  Christians,  individually  and  in  mass, 
are  not  the  less  bound  to  apply  themselves 
to  the  task  because  it  seems  gigantic  and 
above  their  knowledge ;  the  effort  is  as  ne- 
cessary for  their  spiritual  welfare  as  it  is 
for  the  elevation  of  the  poor.  Every  ques- 
tion of  human  well-being  is  solved  directly 
or  indirectly  in  the  instructions  left  us  by 
Christ.      Every   man   is   his   steward;    and 


172         THE   NATURE    OF   OUR   STEWARDSHIP. 


if  he  has  wealth,  the  principle  upon  which  he 
is  to  hold  it  is  plainly  indicated.  The  rich 
man  is  not  bound  to  divide  his  estate  with 
his  neighbour  who  may  be  in  want,  for  the 
poor  man  may  be  utterly  incapable  of  manag- 
ing property.  He  is  bound  to  relieve  him,*^ 
to  the  extent  that  love  may  dictate,  necessity 
require,  and  prudence  prescribe.  The  Chris- 
tian who  cannot  hold  riches  upon  this  tenure, 
is  in  great  danger  if  he  hold  them  at  all.  It 
will  be  easier  for  a  camel  to  pass  through  the 
eye  of  a  needle  than  for  him  to  enter  the 
kingdom  of  God. 


THE     RESPONSIBILITIES     OF     CHRISTIANS     IN     THE 
UNITED    STATES    IN    REGARD    TO   THE   SUFFERING 

CLASSES. 

We  have  thus  instanced  the  case  of  British 
Christians,  and  insisted  upon  their  adopting 
the  Christian  solution  of  the  great  jproblem 
of  pauperism.     Their   social   difficulties  are 


THERE   ARE   POOR   IN   THIS    COUNTRY.  173 


complicated  by  connection  with  the  govern- 
ment, and  hardened  in  texture  by  antiquity ; 
but  the  duty  is  not  less  pressing  and  impera- 
tive. Lazarus  is  still  lying  at  their  gate  :  the 
wounded  man  in  their  streets  is  still  bleed- 
ing— and  the  priest  and  Levite  pass  by  on 
the  other  side,  whilst  the  good  Samaritan 
delays  his  coming.  All  this,  however  strik- 
ing, removes  no  responsibility  from  the  Chris- 
tians of  this  country.  Have  we  not  among  us 
those  who  are  hungry,  and  require  to  be  fed ; 
those  that  are  naked,  and  require  to  be  clothed ; 
those  that  are  fainting  with  thirst,  that  re- 
quire a  cup  of  cold  water ;  those  that  are 
sick  and  in  prison  that  require  to  be  visited? 
Alas!  how  many  poor  are  already  among 
us,  and  how  fearfully  the  numbers  are  increas- 
ing !  And  what  has  been  done  for  them  by 
American  Christians,  upon  whom  their  Master 
has  heaped  such  bounteous  favours  ?  They 
have,  as  in  England  since  the  Reformation, 
been  turned  over  to  the  public  authorities. 
Christians,  as  such,  have  thus  repudiated  their 


15* 


174   WHAT  HAVE  WE  DONE  FOR  THE  POOR? 


\- 


highest  obligations.  They  have  not  taken  in 
Lazarus^  to  clothe  and  feed  him :  they  have 
not  taken  up  the  wounded  man :  they  have 
sent  all  to  the  poor-house ;  or  rather,  they 
have  virtually  assented  to  the  doctrine  that 
that  is  the  proper  place  for  them. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country,our  poor-houses 
are  fast  growing  populous,  and  we  are,  in  this 
career,  treading  upon  the  heels  of  England. 
What  have  Christians  done  here  to  arrest  this 
evil  of  pauperism  ?  Their  influence  must  be 
felt  and  exhibited  in  the  action  of  our  institu- 
tions, according  to  numbers,  energy,  and  de- 
votion to  any  good  cause.  If  Christianity  is 
not  exemplified  in  the  lives  of  its  professors  in 
this  country,  where  lies  the  responsibility? 
If  their  united  influence  is  not  seen  in  the 
action  of  our  various  governments,  what  is  the 
cause  ? 

In  point  of  fact,  we  find  Christians  for- 
getting their  vocation  in  the  exercise  of  their 
duty  as  citizens,  and  ranging  themselves  in 
the  rank  and  file  of  political  gamblers  and 


OPPOETUNITIES  OF  DOING  GOOD.      175 


demagogues.  There  are  Christians  enough, 
and  light,  and  wisdom  enough,  if  properly 
and  zealously  applied,  to  place  every  truly 
good  cause  in  the  ascendant,  and  to  make  our 
land  as  remarkable  for  its  exemplification  of 
Christian  precepts  as  it  has  been  for  the  fa- 
vour of  Providence.  If  the  Christians  of  this 
country  had  only  been  as  faithful  to  their  re- 
ligious obligations  as  they  have  been  faithful 
to  party  discipline,  they  would  now  wield  a 
moral  and  religious  power  which  nothing 
within  or  without  could  long  withstand. 

Here  is  a  field  in  which  Christians,  for  more 
than  half  a  century,  have  had  full  liberty  and 
free  scope  to  carry  out  their  Master's  injunc- 
tions. What  have  they  done  ?  What  kind 
of  Christianity  is  exhibited  in  this  country, 
where  the  conscience  is  free;  where  religion 
is  not  complicated  with  the  government; 
where  abuses  are  not  consecrated  by  antiquity; 
where  superstitions  are  not  fastened  uj)on  us 
by  the  habits  and  associations  of  ages ;  where 
the  priesthood  is  without  power,  and  where 


176  RELIGIOUS    STRIFES. 


the  light  of  the  Scriptures  shines  as  freely  as 
the  light  of  the  sun  ?  To  what  extent  do  we 
behold  the  influence  of  Christians  in  our  legis- 
lation, or  in  the  working  of  our  national  or 
state  governments  ?  Do  we  find  that  influence 
in  the  fierce  competition  of  trades,  in  the  pro- 
gress of  which  thousands  upon  thousands  an- 
nually fall  into  distress  and  j)overty,  while  the 
eager  votaries  of  wealth  sweep  past,  unheed- 
ing the  victims  upon  whom  they  trample  ? 

But  this  is  the  mass  which  owns  not  Christ. 
Look,  then,  at  those  who  profess  to  be  his  fol- 
lowers, and  bear  his  name.  Scores  of  churches 
surround  us,  mutually  repelling  and  attack- 
ing each  other,  and  aflbrding  a  scene  of  strife, 
jealous}^,  animosity,  and  evil-speaking,  with 
scarce  a  parallel  for  virulence  in  the  proceed, 
ings  of  those  who  profess  no  fellowship  with 
Christ.  Each  of  these  various  sects  claim,  in 
terms  the  most  unqualified,  that  they  only 
are  right :  no  claim  of  infallibility  is  stronger 
than  that  they  arrogate.  Some  difler  as  wide 
as  terms  can  separate  them  :  others  agree  so 


INTERNAL  CHURCH  FEUDS.         177 


nearly,  that  there  is  scarcely  the  shade  of  a 
phrase  between  them ;  yet  the  bitterness  of  divi- 
sion only  increases  with  the  less  it  has  to  fasten 
upon.  But  while  this  sectarianism  is  thus  a 
spectacle  to  the  world,  it  is  eclipsed  by  the  in- 
ternal feuds  to  which  these  sects  are  themselves 
exposed.  Many  of  them  have  been  convulsed  to 
their  centres,  or  blown  asunder  by  explosions 
of  strife  and  evil  passions  which  were  a  dis- 
grace to  civilization,  let  alone  Christianity. 
Volumes  might  be  filled  with  accounts  of  these 
fatal  exhibitions ;  but,  alas,  they  are  too  fresh 
in  the  memory  of  all,  to  need  any  reference 
even  in  the  wav  of  warnino;. 

Apart  from  these  flagrant  departures  from 
the  spirit  of  Christianity,  what  does  the  current 
history  of  the  various  churches,  in  greater  or 
less  degree,  disclose  ?  Intense  and  often  unscru- 
pulous rivalry,  incessant  and  unkind  competi- 
tion, a  self-glorifying  and  haughty  demeanour. 
Whatever  a  few  individuals  may  do  to  correct 
or  overcome  the  evil,  churches  seldom  treat 
each  other  in  a  spirit  of  love  or  forbearance. 


178    THE  POOR  ENTER  XOT  INTO  RICH  TEMPLES. 


If,  without,  they  are  ever  in  a  hostile  attitude ; 
within,  they  are  far  from  being  at  peace  with 
each  other,  or  with  the  Master  they  profess 
to  serve.  If  united,  they  are  but  too  often 
frozen  together :  if  at  variance,  it  has  all  the 
acrimony  of  a  family  quarrel.  They  build 
sumptuous  temples  for  the  worship  of  God, 
and  sell  the  seats  to  the  highest  bidder :  they 
neither  attend  nor  allow  others  to  attend. 
The  poor  are  virtually  excluded  from  houses 
professedly  devoted  to  the  service  of  their 
best  Friend ;  they  are  not  invited  to  come  to 
the  services  of  these  temples :  much  less  are 
they  compelled  to  come  in :  the  streets  and 
highways  are  never  searched  to  find  guests 
for  the  empty  seats  in  these  costly  dwellings 
of  sectarian  worship.*  The  gospel  is  not 
preached  to  the  poor,  neither  in  them  nor 
out  of  them.  Christ  is  preached,  but  not 
obeyed ;  his  various  offices  are  magnified,  and 
proclaimed,  but  his  precepts  are  neither  ade- 

*  The  few  honourable  exceptions  to  these  statements  do  not  save 
the  necessity  of  making  these  and  similar  remarks. 


THE    RANGE    OF   VISION    CONTRACTED.         179 


quately  explained  nor  exemplified.  The 
preaching  is  done  in  the  churches  to  the  rich,j 
or  to  the  empty  seats  which  belong  to  them.\ 
The  word  of  life  is  scattered  abroad  over  the 
world  with  a  liberal  hand,  but  it  goes  unac- 
companied by  any  practical  ratification  of  its 
benign  precepts,  proving  that  it  is  confided 
in  and  obeyed  by  those  who  send  it.  The 
gospel  is  sent  to  the  heathen  of  far  distant 
lands,  but  the  heathen  at  home  are  neglected. 
The  world  is  the  field  committed  to  Chris- 
tians for  cultivation,  and  they  employ  them- 
selves in  dividing  and  subdividing  the  ground, 
in  building  high  walls,  in  planting  hedges 
of  thorns,  in  digging  deep  ditches,  and  in 
endless  disputes  about  boundaries  and  lines 
of  demarcation,  whilst  the  plants,  the  poor 
plants,  suffer  for  want  of  proper  culture, 
wither  and  die.  The  labourers  in  these  arti- 
ficial lines  of  circumvallation  are  not  per- 
mitted to  look  over  these  walls,  but  are  re- 
quired to  contract  the  range  of  vision  and 
thought  to  the  lines  prescribed.     The  culti- 


180  WHAT   WE    KNOW,    LET    US   DO. 


vators  of  tHs  great  field,  thus  fearfully  par- 
titioned, employ  tliemselves  in  studying  and 
discussing  the  philosophy  of  their  work,  down 
to  the  minutest  matter,  and  to  the  nicest  pos- 
sible distinctions;  and  while  thus  engaged, 
plants  perish  by  thousands  at  their  feet,  lack- 
ing that  attention  which  the  simplest  Chris- 
tian could  afford.  Thus  that  labour  of  Chris- 
tians is  expended  in  discussing,  refining,  and 
distinguishing,  which  should  be  laid  out  in 
exemplifying  what  they  know.  Immense 
efforts  are  made  to  induce  and  compel  people 
to  believe  the  same  things,  and  to  think  in 
the  same  channels,  which  should  be  applied 
to  the  practical  illustration  of  what  we  believe 
and  know  in  common.  It  is  in  vain  that  we 
master  chemistry,  meteorology,  and  the  whole 
science  of  agriculture,  if  we  do  not  likewise 
perform  the  humble  offices  of  ploughing, 
manuring,  planting  and  watering.  It  is 
equally  in  vain  to  pile  up  volumes  of  theo- 
logy mountains  high,  if  w^e  are  not  thereby 
stimulated    to    engage    in    those    Christian 


THEOLOGY   TOO   MUCH    EXALTED.  181 


labours  of  love  wliicli  it  should  be  a  main 
object  of  those  works  of  theology,  if  they  are 
of  any  value,  to  recommend  and  encourage. 
The  truth  is,  that  theology  has  been  ex- 
alted  immeasurably   above   practical   Chris- 
tianity ;  although  no  theology  can  be  wholly 
clear  or  convincing  which  is  not  accompanied 
by  a  practical  illustration.     Precept  may  go 
before   example,  but   it   must   go  unheeded 
unless   the   example   quickly   follows.     The 
great  work  of  Christianity  being  to  love  God 
and  man,  Christianity  can  only  be  success- 
fully propagated  by  those  whose  lives  illus- 
trate these  duties.     The  only  solvent  for  the 
pride,  asperity,  hatred,  jealousy,  envy,  and 
other  evil  passions  of  men,  is  charity.     The 
only  medium  in  which  the  truths  of  revela- 
tion can  be  clearly  seen  and  appreciated  in 
all  their  varied  ramifications,  is  charity ;  it  is 
the  true  test  of  all  theology.     The  only  at- 
mosphere  in  which    the  rays  of  truth  can 
reach  the  hearts  of  all  tlie  dwellers  on  earth 
with  their  full  power,  and  in  which  the  work 


16 


182  A   NEW  REFORMATION    NEEDED. 


'  of  bringing  the  whole  race  of  men  under  the 
dominion   of  Christ   shall    be    successful,  is 

,  charity. 

If  this  be  so,  a  greater  reformation  is  yet 
to  be  accomplished  than  that  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  How  true  that  no  flesh  can  glory 
in  its  own  doings  before  G  od  !  Let  modern 
Pharisees  of  every  church,  who  imagine  they 
have  attained  unto  the  full  measure  of  holi- 
ness, pause  to  inquire  whether  they  are  not 
merely  full  of  spiritual  pride  and  uncharita- 
bleness  :  for  sanctity  cannot  dwell  but  with 
brotherly  love. 
/  Let  a  new  reformation  commence,  which 
shall  exhibit  in  its  consummation  the  "  Fa- 
therhood of  God  and  the  brotherhood  of  man." 
Let  it  commence  here,  where  there  is  no  need 
for  such  a  protector  as  Frederic  of  Saxony, 
nor  any  such  champion  as  the  detestable 
Henry  VIII.  It  demands  the  disruption  of 
no  ties  but  those  which  bind  us  to  evil.  It 
implies  no  revolution  but  that  gradual  one 
which  must  take  place  as  men  change  from 


WHAT   THE   WORLD   WOULD   ADMIRE.  183 


worse  to  better.  Let  every  man  examine  him- 
self, and  see  what  talents  are  committed  to 
him  for  his  master's  service,  and  prepare  him- 
self hy  a  proper  fulfilment  of  his  stewardship 
to  render  his  final  account.  There  is  no  plea- 
sure in  this  world  so  exalted  and  so  pure  as 
this,  in  which  our  great  duty  consists  in 
honouring  God  and  helping  man.  If  all  who 
profess  to  be  followers  of  Christ  were  to  carry 
out  in  their  lives  all  his  prece23ts  in  this  re- 
spect, the  spectacle  would  fill  the  world  with 
awe  and  admiration.  Wickedness  and  cruelty 
and  oppression  would  shrink  from  that  obser- 
vation which  now  they  do  not  fear. 

But  the  world  now  looks  on  and  beholds,  in 
Catholic  countries,  that  great  machine  called 
the  church,'  contrived  by  crafty  and  ambitious 
men  to  enrich  themselves,  to  enslave  and  rule 
the  masses  under  cover  of  ignorance  and  su- 
perstition :  where  Protestantism  prevails,  a ' 
free  intellect,  but  a  hard  and  unrelenting 
selfishness,  a  devotion  to  mammon  never  be- 
fore equalled,  a  grinding  competition  in  all  the 


184  CHARACTER   OF    CHRISTENDOM. 


pursuits  of  life,  a  race  for  wealth  and  power, 
in  which  the  multitudes  are  distanced  by  a  few, 
who  become  masters,  and  wield  their  power 
with  unpitying  severity ;  a  scene  of  strife,  of 
endless  divisions,  of  hot  discussions  about  tri- 
fles, of  sectarian  rivalry,  in  which  every  ele- 
ment of  evil  mingles,  often  without  even  a  spice 
of  human  kindness,  much  less  religious  charity. 

^-^Will  the  world  adopt  Christianity  while  this 
picture  is  before  it  ?  No :  the  world  has 
already  risen  in  judgment  upon  Christianity 
as  exemplified  by  those  who  are  called  Chris- 
tians. What  are  the  characteristics  of  Chris-^^ 
tendom  in  the  eye  of  the  world  ?^\3ivilization, 
discord,  war,  priestcraft,  sectarianism,  greedi- 
ness of  gain,  vigour  of  mind,  heartless  compe- 
titioi^  domination  of  capital,  pauperism,  crime. 
'.The  world  sees  much  to  admire  in  Christen- 
dom, but  fearful  evidence  that  neither  the 
laws  of  brotherly  kindness  nor  Christian  clia- 

I  rity  control  its  institutions,  social,  political,  or 
religious!  Let  not  the  Romanist  flatter  him- 
self thatthe  church  can  ultimatelv  vindicate 


ROMANISM  CONDEMNED  ALREADY.      185 


Christianity,  and  set  all  right.  His  church 
has  had  her  day  of  uncontrolled  sway,  and 
exhibited  what  men  will  invariably  do  when 
made  the  depositary  of  such  powers :  she 
abused  her  position  shamefully,  and  sank 
Christianity  into  a  long  night  of  ignorance  and 
superstition :  his  church  is  condemned  already, 
and  is  clinging  with  unwise  and  depraved  per- 
tinacity to  that  povfer  which  the  world  will 
ere  long  tear  from  hands  polluted  with  every 
crime.  A  few  ill-balanced  minds,  darkened  by 
drinking  at  the  literary  fountains  of  the  mid- 
dle ages,  may  betake  themselves  to  the  deep 
shadows  of  Romanism,  and  thus  turn  their 
eyes  from  the  cheering  light  which  the  pro- 
gress of  humanity  is  shedding  round  them. 
Theirs  is  a  mental  vision  which  cannot  en- 
dure human  progress,  nor  undergo  that  change 
of  light  which  must  be  encountered  in  the 
struggle  for  human  brotherhood.  They  can 
perceive  no  beauty  in  the  religion  of  Christ ; 
they  cannot  be  reconciled  to  any  religion  but 
that  which  involves  all  power  in  the  hands 


16* 


186     LET   PROTESTANTS    BEWARE    OF   JUDGMENT. 


of  priestSj  and  all  submission  on  the  part  of 
the  people.  They  may  believe  in  Christ  -,  they 
trust  only  in  the  church. 

Let  not  the  Protestant  wrap  himself  in 
spiritual  pride,  and  imagine  that  because  he 
has  escaped  the  errors  of  Komanismj  he  is  safe 
from  the  judgment  of  the  world.  Let  him  not 
scorn  that  judgment  because  it  often  con- 
demns what  is  right ;  but  let  him  dread  it,  be- 
cause it  judges  him  for  denying  his  Master 
and  disgracing  his  cause.  Let  Protestants 
dread  that  rejection  of  Christianity  which 
springs  from  their  evil  examj)le.  Let  them 
fear  their  responsibility  for  retarding  the  cause 
they  profess  to  befriend.  Let  them  forbear 
proclaiming  that  Christianity  is  what  their 
example  makes  it ;  the  world  may  either  re- 
fuse to  accept  such  a  religion,  or  condemn  the 
^pretensions  of  its  professors. 

Protestants  are  now  zealously  and  success- 
fully scattering  the  Scriptures  in  all  languages 
to  the  ends  of  the  earth,  and  all  men  are  in- 
vited to  read  and  judge  for  themselves.    They 


MEN   WILL   INTERPHET   FOR   THEMSELVES.      187 


will  do  so ;  they  are  doing  so,  and  are  dis- 
posed to  interpret  for  themselves.    They  will 
not  adopt  all  the  sectarian  dogmas ;  they  will 
even  question  the  piety  of  many  of  the  strait- 
est  of  the  sects.    They  will  decide  that  either 
these  sects  can  find  no  warrant  for  many  of 
their  doings  and  doctrines  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, or  that  it  can  be  no  revelation  from 
God.     The  independent  readers  of  the  evan-  »^ 
gelists  will  bow  neither  to  Romish  tradition 
nor  to  Protestant  interpretation.     They  can  ^^ 
read  Christ  for  themselves,  and  the  more  they    \ 
read,  the  more  they  will  wonder  how  many    j 
who  call  themselves  Christians  can  for  a  mo- 
ment pretend  to  be  followers  of  the  meek  and 
lowly  Jesus,  whose  whole  ministry  was  among 
the  poor  and  the  erring,  and  whose  strongest 
rebukes  were  reserved  for  the  proud,  the  rich, 
and  the  sanctimonious. 

Christ  went  from  village  to  village,  healing 
the  sick  and  personally  solacing  the  cares  of  the 
poor :  Protestants  fulfil  their  charities,  not  per- 
sonally, but  by  delegation,  or  by  machinery;* 


188  PROTESTANT   AND    ROMANIST. 


they  visit  the  sick,  feed  the  hungry,  and  clothe 
the  naked  by  joint-stock  associations,  or  by  the 
hands  of  public  functionaries.  The  Eoman- 
ists  trust  in  the  church ;  the  Protestants  trust 
in  theology.  The  former  thinks  to  save  him- 
self by  confessions,  masses,  and  priestly  abso- 
lution; the  other  by  preaching,  by  prayer- 
meetings,  and  lectures.  The  one  holds  to  the 
accumulated  errors  of  ages,  and  shuts  out 
Christ  for  the  sake  of  the  church ;  the  other — 
all  right  in  theology — clings  to  a  skeleton  in 
triumph,  rejecting  flesh  and  blood  and  spirit. 
Both  Komanist  and  Protestant  hold  up  Christ 
as  a  Saviour,  and  proclaim  his  personal  suffer- 
ings, his  cross,  his  crucifixion,  his  atonement, 
/his  ascension,  but  they  omit  his  life  of  toil 
I  among  the  poor,  and,  above  all,  they  neither 
'preach  nor  j)i'actise  what  he  taught.  \  The 
person  of  Christ  has  long  disa2:)peared  from 
the  earth,  his  earthly  sufferings  are  long  since 
over,  his  personal  mission  has  long  since 
ended,  his  atonement  has  long  since  been  ac- 
'  complished,  but  his  precepts  are  handed  down 


THEOLOGY   AND    TRADITION.  189 


to  US  unimpaired  in  sublimity,  beauty,  and 
strength  of  obligation  by  the  lapse  of  ages. 
These  constitute  overpowering  evidence  that 
He  who  delivered  them  "  spake  as  never  man 
spake/'  and  that  his  mission  must  have  been 
divine,  which  breathed  so  much  love,  so  much 
compassion,  so  much  that  is  beyond  and 
above  what  any  human  teacher  ever  ima- 
gined or  expressed.  All  this,  we  have  now ; 
and  this  is  what  is  not  fairly  incorporated 
into  the  religious  systems  of  either  Protest- 
ant or  Catholic.  The  former  substitutes  his 
peculiar  hobby  of  theology;  his  catechism, 
prayer-book,  creed,  confession,  articles,  or  other 
frames  of  doctrine  are  carefully  and  assidu- 
ously taught  to  old  and  young,  while  the 
teachings  of  Christ  are  comparatively  neg- 
lected. The  Romanist  rejects  the  New  Tes- 
tament itself,  as  of  no  more  authority  than  a 
papal  bull,  and  Christ  as  being  no  wiser  than 
the  pope,  both  being  infallible.  But  the 
w^orld  is  now  reading  this  rejected  book,  and 
the   readers   will    compare  Christians    with 


190   THIS  WORLD  ABUSED  BUT  PROTECTED. 


Christumitv.  This  ordeal  lias  begun :  the  motto 
of  an  advancing  army  of  reformers  is  the 
"  Fatherhood  of  God,  the  brotherhood  of  man." 
What  arms  can  Christians  oppose  to  such  in- 
vaders ?  That  policy  may  no  longer  suffice 
which  has  hitherto  prevailed,  of  declaiming 
against  the  love  of  the  world,  and  yet  falling 
with  savage  severity  upon  him  who  offers  to 
disturb  a  single  brick  in  the  grand  structure 
of  that  society  which  constitutes  this  present 
world.  There  are  no  greater  friends  of  poli- 
tical liberty  than  Protestants,  but  it  is  that 
liberty  which  lets  every  man  take  care  of  him- 
self, and  ruin  seize  the  hindmost ;  it  is  that 
liberty  which  stimulates  all  to  run,  but  per- 
mits the  heat  of  competition  to  rise  so  high 
that  none  can  stoop  to  pick  up  the  multi- 
tudes who  fall  exhausted  by  the  way/ 


191 


GRADUAL  DECLENSION  OF  CHRISTIANITY,  UNTIL 
IT  LOSES  THE  IMAGE  OF  ITS  ORIGIN. 

Humiliating  will  be  the  effort  of  him  who, 
with  a  clear  perception  of  the  sublime  and 
simple  instructions  of  Christ,  betakes  himself 
to  the  task  of  searching  the  history  of  the 
last  eighteen  centuries  for  any  extended  or 
national  exemplification  of  these  pure  les- 
sons. He  may  experience  all  the  admira- 
tion which  the  struggle  of  Christianity  with 
heathenism,  during  a  few  centuries  of  its  in- 
fancy, is  calculated  to  excite :  he  may  be 
struck  with  the  vigour  it  infuses,  the  confi- 
dence it  inspires,  the  unfailing  courage  and 
fortitude  it  sustains ;  but  he  must  suffer  the 
deep  mortification  of  beholding  that  which 
could  triumph  over  a  world  of  enemies  suc- 
cumbing to  the  treachery  of  professed  friends. 
Christianity  was  no  sooner  established  than 
its  perversion  commenced:  crafty,  covetous, 


192  MISTAKES   OF   ROMANISM. 


and  ambitious  men  made  it  the  instrument 
of  working  out  their  designs,  of  absorbing 
wealth,  and  wielding  the  power  of  nations. 
Whatever  of  the  truth  was  recognised  by  the 
papal  church,  and  whatever  of  joiety  may  have 
been  displayed  from  age  to  age  by  individuals 
in  her  communion,  because  they  could  not  be 
out  of  it,  the  church  of  Eome  is  a  fabric  as 
purely  human  and  as  entirely  opposed  to  the 
true  spirit  of  Christ's  teachings  as  any  system 
of  idolatry  or  false  religion  the  world  has 
ever  known.  The  papacy  has  only  honoured 
and  used  the  truth  as  a  means  to  sustain  her 
usurped  power ;  and  cannot  therefore  be  de- 
fended on  the  ground  of  having  merely  disre- 
garded the  truth.  Considered  as  a  human  in- 
vention, its  great  mistake  was  in  the  vastness 
of  the  power  committed  to  its  priests;  the 
extent  of  this  and  its  nature  insured  its  abuse. 
It  was  a  power  which  could  not  be  safely  in- 
trusted to  human  hands.  The  monstrous  cor- 
ruptions and  the  enormous  wickedness  dis- 
played in  the  history  of  the  papacy  are  such 


WHAT  WARRANT  FOR  A  POMPOUS  RITUAL.      193 


as  flowed  from  its  constitution.  Any  other 
men  clothed  with  such  powers  would  have 
been  as  guilty.  In  all  sects  of  Christians, 
before  and  since  the  Reformation,  human 
nature  displays  its  weaknesses  and  its  de- 
pravity according  to  the  power  and  oppor- 
tunity afforded  to  weak  or  wicked  men,  who 
are  found  in  every  community  and  con- 
gregation. What  warrant  has  Christ  left 
for  any  complicated  ecclesiastical  organiza- 
tion, for  high  offices,  for  priestly  power,  for  a 
splendid  ritual  or  pompous  ceremonies  !  He 
selected  his  assistants  from  the  lowest  orders 
of  the  people  :  he  gave  them  no  power  but  to 
declare  the  truth  and  to  heal  the  sick :  he 
built  no  temples,  and  had  not  where  to  lay 
his  own  head.  His  church,  as  he  left  it,  was 
the  simplest  possible  form  of  organization. 
In  fact,  in  all  its  chief  characteristics,  it  was 
the  opposite  of  the  papacy.  He  used  no  ritual, 
and  left  none  for  his  followers.  He  enjoined 
no    ceremonies    but    those    connected   with 


17 


194  OUR  INSTITUTIONS  NOT  CHRISTIAN. 


the  simple  and  common  acts  of  eating  and 
washing. 

It  is  plain  that  the  institutions  of  this 
world,  political,  social,  commercial,  and  in- 
dustrial, we  had  almost  said  religious,  par- 
take little  of  the  spirit  of  Christ ;  and  yet  his 
ministers  and  disciples  are  its  most  noted  and 
uncompromising  defenders.  Is  it  because 
these  ministers  and  disciples  are  so  well 
treated  by  the  world,  that  they  are  in  such 
strict  league  with  it,  and  are  so  prompt  to 
take  its  part  ?  ^All  over  Christendom,  masses 
of  men,  long  oppressed,  are  rising  clamorous 
for  relief,  and  a  better  condition.  Light  from 
Christianity  has  broken  upon  the  night  of 
their  ignorance  and  helplessness,  and  they 
know  that  they  are  entitled  to  something 
better  in  the  world's  portion  than  has  been 
allotted  them.  But  the  whole  truth  has 
not  been  told  them,  and  their  notions  of 
remedy  are  wild  and  impracticable.  This 
great  movement  should  be  met  by  Chris- 
tians with  rejoicing  that  light  is  at  length 


WHAT  IS  DONE  FOR  THE  MASSES.  195 


penetrating  such  a  dark  mass  of  ignorance ; 
and  they  should  hasten  to  hold  up  to  them  the 
precepts  of  Christ,  as  meeting  their  entire  case, 
and  providing  a  complete  remedy  for  all  their 
grievances.  But  how  is  it  that  the  outcries 
of  these  masses  who  have  been  hitherto 
strangers  to  the  voice  of  Christian  kindness, 
are  now  met  by  both  Romanist  and  Protest- 
ant with  a  stern  frown  of  rebuke  and  rejec- 
tion ?  Christ  is  not  preached  to  these  poor, 
suffering  millions,  as  all-sufficient  for  them; 
much  less  do  they  anywhere  behold  any 
Christian  movement  in  their  behalf,  wdiich 
might  at  once  explain  to  them  their  errors 
and  show  them  their  remedy.  They  are  not 
sought  for  in  the  lanes  and  highways,  and 
invited,  nay,  compelled,  to  come  into  the  feast 
of  life ;  but  they  are  rudely  driven  from  the 
door  as  they  present  themselves,  and  are  told 
that  there  is  no  room,  no  remedy,  no  allevia- 
tion ;  that  the  laws  of  property  and  the  ar- 
rangements of  society  utterly  forbid  any  ame- 
lioration of  their  sad  condition.     Thus  it  is 


196  IF   CHRIST    WERE   TO   APPEAR   AGAIN, 


that  religion  purchases  her  peace  with  this 
present  world,  by  sustaining  its  institutions ; 
thus  it  is  that  Christ  is  denied,  to  purchase  a 
liberal  provision  for  his  ministers ;  thus  it  is 
that,  whilst  these  ministers  assume  the  office 
of  denouncing  this  world,  its  maxims,  its  fol- 
lies, its  oppressions,  its  greediness  of  gain; 
they  deny  that  privilege  to  those  who  are 
enduring  the  bitterest  lot  that  can  befall  hu- 
manity. Christ  did  not  so :  He  went  first 
to  the  poor,  and  administered  succour  and 
comfort  to  them ;  and  that  such  is  the  chief 
duty  of  his  disciples  now  is  as  clear  as  the 
words  of  inspiration  can  make  it.  If  Christ 
were  to  appear  again  on  a  mission  to  earth, 
he  would  go  aga^in  to  the  multitudes;  he 
would  be  seen  aga.in  in  the  abodes  of  the  poor ; 
he  would  again  claim  no  resting-place  for  his 
head;  he  would  again  repeat  his  words  of 
solace  to  the  lowly,  and  his  works  of  mercy 
to  the  suffering.  He  would  find  little  time 
for  Protestant  observances,  and  little  occasion 
for  their  temples.     His  ministry  would  con- 


WHAT  THEN  IS  TO  BE  DONE?       197 


form  to  his  precepts;  and  many  who  repeat 
^Lord,  Lord!'  and  claim  to  be  his  special  and 
favourite  discij)les,  would  find  themselves  ob- 
jects of  his  sternest  indignation  and  most 
withering  rebukes.  The  race  of  Pharisees 
and  priests  and  false  teachers  is  not  extinct ; 
they  would  again  treat  their  Master  with 
contempt  and  scorn,  or  utter  neglect,  if  his 
associations  were  among  the  poor  and  lowly. 
What,  then,  is  to  be  done  ?  No  violent 
revolution  is  required.  No  despot  is  to  be 
hunted  from  his  place  ;  no  blood  is  to  be  shed; 
no  legislation  is  indispensable;  no  new  sect 
in  religion  or  philosophy  need  be  formed,  nor, 
in  the  first  instance,  need  any  one  desert  the 
position  in  which  Providence  has  placed  him. 
What  is  required  is,  that  every  one  who  is, 
or  who  believes  himself  to  be,  a  true  disciple 
of  Christ,  should  at  once  resolve  so  far  as  in 
his  power,  and  so  far  as  he  might  be  favoured 
with  divine  aid,  to  live  in  this  world  according 
to  the  teachings  of  his  Master.  As  soon  as 
the  great  law  of  doing  to  others  as  we  would 

17* 


198  THE    RESULT. 


others  should  do  to  us  begms  to  be  exem- 
plified, the  reign  of  wrong,  and  injury,  and 
extreme  suffering  will  come  rapidly  to  an 
end.  Instead  of  one  Howard,  one  Mrs.  Fry, 
and  one  Miss  Dix  in  a  century,  we  should 
have  thousands  upon  thousands,  in  every  de- 
partment of  charity.  When  we  look  at  what 
these  three  individuals  have  accomplished, 
what  might  we  not  expect  from  millions 
labouring  with  united  strength  and  intellect 
in  the  great  v/ork  of  human  welfare  ? 

As  soon  as  the  law  of  charity  is  fulfilled 
on  an  extensive  scale,  in  all  its  Christian 
beauty  and  loveliness,  the. world  v/ill  pause 
to  admire  and  believe  and  imitate.  The 
apostles  as  well  as  their  great  Master  mingled 
their  preaching  with  incessant  care  of  the 
poor  and  the  suffering ;  it  should  be  so  now. 
Christians  mav  not  fold  their  arms,  and  be 
inactive,  because  there  is  an  almshouse,  a 
poorhouse,  or  a  benevolent  society.  There 
should  be  no  suffering  within  the  reach  of 
any  Christian  that  he  can  relieve  or  alleviate, 


EFFECT  OF  A  FULL  CONCEPTION  OF  DUTY.   199 


without  making  the  attempt.  It  is  not 
Christianity  to  attend  weekly  in  the  stately 
church  and  well-cushioned  pew,  to  hear  expo- 
sitions of  difficult  passages  of  Scripture,  while 
there  is  an  utter  failure  to  perform  duties 
which  are  so  plainly  enjoined  that  the  dull- 
est intellect  can  comprehend.  Nor  does  the 
most  punctual  attendance  upon  the  Sunday- 
school,  or  upon  lectures  or  weekly  meetings 
for  prayer,  make  up  for  neglect  of  the  higher 
duties  of  charity.  If  the  preacher  and  people 
in  our  rich  and  well-ordered  congregations 
w^ere,  in  the  midst  of  the  gravest  sermon,  sud- 
denly visited  from  on  high  with  a  deep  and 
adequate  conception  of  their  transgressions 
of  the  law  of  charity,  and  of  the  duties  which 
they  owe  to  those  who  are  outside  of  the 
church ;  if  they  were  made  to  realize  the  great 
contrast  between  their  condition  and  that  of 
those  who  were  abroad  and  around  them, 
their  seats  woLdd  in  a  moment  become  insup- 
portable, and  they  would  rush  in  a  mass, 
preacher    and    people,   from   their    splendid 


200  THOSE  COMPREHEND,  WHO  PRACTISE.. 


edifice,  to  the  courts  and  alleys  and  cellars, 
to  the  abodes  of  destitution,  ignorance,  crime, 
and  suffering.  They  would  carry  succour  for 
present  wants  3  and  all  would  become  teachers 
of  the  way  of  life.  In  vain  do  we  preach, 
and  in  vain  do  we  teach,  unless  we  carry  obe- 
dience to  what  vre  do  understand,  into  our 
lives;  our  progress  in  knowledge  of  divine 
things  must  be  limited  by  our  actual  progress 
in  the  practical  duties  of  Christianity. 

No  people  can  ever  fully  comprehend  Chris- 
tianity but  those  who  comply  with  its  requi- 
sitions ;  and  of  course  the  world  can  never  ap- 
preciate it  until  its  laws  of  love  are  shown  by 
example.  This  distinguishing  feature  of  Chris- 
tianity is  that  which  Christians  have  most 
slighted.  More  attention  has  been  given  in 
our  churches  and  Sunday-schools  to  Jewish 
manners,  customs,  ceremonies — to  the  orna- 
ments of  the  tabernacle  and  temple — to  breast- 
plates and  phj'lacteries,  than  to  the  obliga- 
tions of  brotherly  kindness.  There  are  foun- 
tains of  tenderness  in  every  human  bosom; 


OUR  HIGHEST  DUTIES,  OUR  PUREST  JOYS.      201 


they  are  not  taught  to  gush  forth  and  flow  in 
streams  which  no  harshness  of  this  world  can 
ever  check  :  there  are  chords  of  love  in  every 
breast;  these  are  not  taught  to  respond  to 
every  appeal  for  sympathy  and  succour. 

The  purest  joys  of  earth,  the  exercise  of  the 
kindly  affections,  are  nearly  allied  to  the  high- 
est Christian  duties  of  love  to  God  and  man. 
Eare  indeed  is  it  to  find  a  soul  so  dead  as  to 
be  insensible  to  kindness;  and  still  more  rare 
is  it  to  find  one  in  the  exercise  of  kindness, 
who  does  not  find  the  benefit  of  his  good  deeds 
more  than  doubled  in  the  happiness  they  re- 
flect upon  himself.  Rare  is  it  to  find  a  heart 
so  insensible  as  to  be  unmoved  at  even  the 
recital  of  noble  deeds  of  charity,  goodness,  and 
neighbourly  kindness.  In  this  great  channel 
of  charity  the  Deity  has  chosen,  in  his  infinite 
mercy,  to  fix  the  sphere  of  our  chief  duties 
and  our  highest  enjoyments.  Here  is  scope 
for  the  employment  of  all  our  talents,  and  for 
the  exercise  of  all  good  affections.  Where  all 
these  come  into  full  use,  under  the  law  of 


202    WHAT  WILL  DISAPPEAR  UNDER  PURER  LIGHT. 


Christian  charity,  many  things  now  deemed 
of  vital  importance  will  sink  into  comparative 
insignificance,  or  utterly  disappear  under  the 
bright  light  of  a  purer  Christianity. 


THE  CLERGY  OF  ALL  CHURCHES— THEIR  MISTAKES, 
DIFFICULTIES,  AND  DUTIES  IN  REFERENCE  TO  THIS 
SUBJECT. 

We  cannot  dismiss  this  topic  without  in- 
voking to  it  the  earnest  attention  of  the  clergy 
of  all  denominations,  as  well  those  who  claim 
to  be  the  successors  of  the  apostles,  as  those 
who  merely  profess  to  be  ministers  of  Christ. 
We  are  not  of  those  who  entertain  any  preju- 
dices against  them  as  a  class.  Like  other 
classes,  their  history  shows  they  have  em- 
braced in  their  ranks  some  of  the  best  and 
some  of  the  worst  of  men.  It  is  plain  they 
have  their  peculiarities  as  a  class,  and  these 
are  mainly  what  circumstances  have  created 


GREAT  ERROR  OF  THE  EARLY  CLERGY.    203 


and  continued.  The  frailties  of  human  na- 
ture have  been  as  apparent  among  them  as 
others :  they  have  shown  themselves  as  sus- 
ceptible to  temptation.  The  developments  of 
their  weaknesses  have  been  more  striking  and 
more  painful  from  the  sacredness  of  their  call- 
ing. The  time  has  arrived  when  their  in- 
fluence for  evil  has  sensibly  diminished,  and 
when,  we  may  trust,  their  labours  for  good 
must  be  more  successful.  The  great  error  of 
the  ministers  of  Christ  in  the  early  ages  of 
Christianity,  as  already  remarked,  w^as  in  sup- 
posing that  the  more  power  and  influence 
they  had,  the  more  useful  they  could  be.  This 
was  a  feeling  very  natural  to  human  weak- 
ness, and  the  continuance  and  increase  of  it 
built  up  the  papacy,  the  spirit  of  which  is,  to 
claim  and  exercise  power,  spiritual  and  tem- 
poral. No  doubt  thousands  upon  thousands 
of  these  early  clergy  honestly  believed  they 
could  better  promote  their  Master's  cause  if 
they  were  armed  with  a  continual  increase 
of  power.    They  imagined  in  like  manner  that 


204  CHRIST  WORKED  NOT  BY  POWER,  BUT  BY  LOVE. 


if  they  could  maintain  a  watcli  over  the  inner 
man,  while  they  had  power  to  control  his  out- 
ward movements,  they  could  efficiently  serve 
their  Master,  and  jDromote  the  interests  of  his 
kingdom  in  this  world.  They  were  daily  en- 
countering obstacles  m  the  heathen  world  by 
which  they  were  surrounded,  and  in  the  per- 
verseness  or  stubborn  independence  of  nomi- 
nal Christians,  which  tended  to  confirm  in 
them  the  conviction  of  the  necessity  of  this 
priestly  power.  They  were  regarding  the  sub- 
ject as  men ;  they  forgot  their  Master's  exam- 
ple, who  had  all  power,  both  temporal  and 
spiritual,  and  yet  worked  only  by  love  :  who 
did  not  even  avail  himself  of  power,  or  wealth, 
or  high  office,  or  social  position.  He  took  the 
lowest  place  in  society,  that  he  might  reach 
the  multitudes  who  were  more  accessible  to 
the  truth,  and  nearer  to  the  kingdom  of  God, 
because  less  wedded  to  this  life  than  the  rich 
and  great.  They  were  not  receiving  the  good 
things  of  this  world.  He  went  among  them 
to  carry  them  glad  tidings  of  the  world  to 


ERROR  OF  GRASPING  POWER  STILL  PREVAILS.     205 


come.  They  were  suffering  in  this  world ;  he 
a|)peared  among  them  to  carry  succour,  con- 
solation, and  hope.  This  should  have  been 
to  this  day  the  conduct  of  his  ministers ;  who, 
by  adopting  the  scheme  of  converting  the 
world  to  God  by  the  power  of  the  church  over 
mind  and  bodv,  have  committed  an  amount 
of  wickedness  beyond  any  human  estimate. 

We  thus  notice  this  great  mistake,  as  it  pre- 
vails to  this  day,  more  or  less,  among  those 
denominations  of  Christians,  or  rather  among 
their  clergy,  who  regard  the  church  of  Christ 
as  a  great  mysterious,  spiritual  corporation. 
The  temptation  of  magnifying  their  office  over- 
much assails  the  ministers  of  Christ  continu- 
all}^,  and  they  seek  to  magnify  it,  not  by  the 
good  they  do,  but  by  the  power  to  do  good. 
But  since  the  days  of  Christ,  it  has  ever  been 
seen  that  power,  temporal  or  spiritual,  was  a 
dangerous  possession  to  priests  or  ministers. 
These  have  always  been  corrupt  in  proportion 
to  the  power  they  wielded.  All  the  power 
they  can  employ  successfully,  is  that  of  truth 

18 


206       TRUTH  BACKED  BY  KINDNESS. 


and  love.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  this 
grasping  after  control  has  come  to  an  end,  or 
that  it  is  confined  to  those  who  claim  to  have  the 
only  true  priesthood.  Many  of  the  reformed 
churches  are  its  victims.  Those  in  the  north 
of  Europe  have  thus  had  all  spiritual  life  ex- 
tinguished :  others  have  suffered  more  in  this 
way  than  we  can  pause  to  tell.  But  this  no- 
tion of  the  church,  with  power  to  do  good, 
haunts  the  minds  of  many  ministers  all  around 
us  in  a  way  that  has  produced,  and  still  pro- 
duces much  mischief.  Instead  of  bending  all 
their  energies  to  commend  the  truth  to  their 
hearers,  and  to  back  it  by  that  kindness  and 
love  which  is  the  seal  of  its  genuineness,  they 
struggle  to  build  up  the  church,  that  is,  their 
particular  denomination ;  to  bring  their  peo- 
ple to  a  strict  adhesion  to  their  peculiar  tenets, 
to  strict  attendance  upon  their  public  wor- 
ship, and  to  a  general  outward  compliance 
with  all  its  requirements.  In  this  way,  a  hedge 
is  carried  round  the  people  which  is  intended 
to  secure  submission  to  the  discipline  of  the 


THE  TRUTH  SHOULD  MAKE  US  FREE.    207 


church,  and  due  attendance  upon  its  pre- 
scribed routine.  All  this  is  very  well  within  -^ 
proper  bounds ;  but  when  the  labours  of  the 
clergy  are  chiefly  devoted  to  congregational 
management^  the  cause  of  Christ  will  suffer  in 
proportion  as  the  minister  is  successful.  He 
may  wield  a  dominion  over  his  people  as 
strong  as  papal  bondage,  by  establishing  a 
public  opinion  which  few  have  courage  to  re- 
sist. He  may  secure  an  apparent  unanimity 
in  matters  of  religion,  which  only  proves  the 
tyranny  which  has  been  established.  All  such 
attempts  to  promote  the  cause  of  Christ  and 
to  extend  his  kingdom  by  church  discipline, 
by  uniformity  of  opinion,  by  destroying  free- 
dom of  expression,  proceed  upon  false  princi- 
ples. The  truth  should  be  preached,  but  can- 
dour should  not  be  extinguished.  Our  pro- 
fession of  being  Christ's  disciples  should  bear 
all  the  fruits  of  religion ;  but  we  should  not 
be  constrained  by  artificial  appliances  to  any 
apparent  obedience  to  Christ's  commands. 
The   truth   should   make   us  free:    free   in 


208         FORGIXG   DENOMINATIONAL   FETTERS. 


tliouglit,  in  speech,  and  in  action.    How  much 
the  mind  is  enslaved  under  papal  rule  is  gene- 
rally appreciated  out  of  that  church;  but  how 
much  bondage  of  opinion  is  endured  under  Pro- 
testant rule,  is  not  so  generally  admitted  or 
considered.    Others  may  point  it  out  and  dis- 
play its  special  evils:  we  refer  to  it  to  show 
how  much  time,  attention,  and  mental  effort 
of  ministers  is  employed  in  keeping  up  this 
system,  which  should  be  employed  upon  the 
more  appropriate  duties  of  the    servants  of 
^  Christ.     If  half  the  time,  labour,  and  mental 
eJBfort  which  have  been  expended  in  forging  de- 
nominational fetters,  in  fastening  them  on,  and 
in  keeping  them  in  their  place,  had  been  spent 
by  ministers  in  simply  and  honestly  imitating 
the  ministry  of  Christ,  how  great  an  advance 
would  Christianity  have  made  beyond  what 
is  now  seen ! 

This  inclination  to  grasp  power  as  a  spirit- 
ual weapon,  so  congenial  to  human  nature,  has 
been  powerfully  seconded  in  every  age  of 
Christian  history,  as  at  this  day,  by  a  ten- 


PETTING    MINISTERS.  209 


dency  scarcely  less  strong  on  tlie  part  of  tlie 
people  to  flatter  and  pet  their  spiritual  guides. 
Multitudes  act  as  if  they  must  be  safe  for  the 
next  world  if  they  can  secure  the  special 
favour  or  smiles  of  their  pastors  in  this  world. 
This  has  always  been  so  obvious  that  even 
the  most,  humble  and  modest  among  the 
clergy  could  not  but  see  evidences  of  this 
servility;  and  none  but  the  most  firm  and 
conscientious  could  help  availing  themselves 
of  it.  By  degrees,  the  temjDoral  advantage 
of  being  priest  or  minister  reached  such  a 
point,  that  it  became  an  object  of  attraction 
for  many,  very  many  who  would  never  other- 
wise have  been  followers  of  Him  who  claimed 
neither  house  nor  home.  The  charge  of  a 
pastor  has  grown  to  be  an  affair  of  business, 
and  no  longer  a  mere  mission  of  truth  and 
mercy  to  and  among  the  poor.  Salaries  are 
given,  not  to  have  the  gospel  preached  to  the 
poor,  not  for  a  ministry  like  that  of  Christ, 
but  for  hard  study  and  much  reading — for 
the  delivery  on  Sundays  of  elaborate  treatises 


18^ 


210        NOT  HALF  THE  POOR  ENTER  A  CHURCH. 


on  Scripture  criticism,  doctrinal  points,  or 
practical  duties.  These  discourses  are  not 
addressed  to  the  poor,  and  are  not  suited  to 
their  comprehension;  they  are  addressed  to 
the  owners  of  the  church  in  which  they  are 
read,  or  to  the  empty  seats  belonging  to  these 
proprietors.  The  poor  enter  these  edifices  in 
'  very  small  numbers.  Not  half  the  poor  in 
^  any  Protestant  country  ever  find  a  seat  in 
the  places  of  public  worship.  Not  half  their 
numbers  ever  hear  the  gospel,  even  by  acci- 
dent, once  in  a  year :  a  very  small  number 
ever  make  the  acquaintance  of  a  minister  of 
Christ.  They  are  born  strangers  to  the  truth, 
and  so  remain  during  all  their  lives.  They 
live,  perhaps,  within  sight  of  many  churches 
devoted  to  the  service  of  God.  But  those 
who  swarm  in  the  courts  and  alleys  and 
suburbs  of  our  cities,  the  outskirts  of  our  vil- 
lages, and  many  a  thronged  locaUty  of  the 
country,  never  enter  a  church,  and  seldom, 
if  ever,  hear  the  accents  of  mercy  and  kind- 
ness which  breathe  in  the  teachings  of  our 


OUR    OBLIGATIONS    NOT   IMPAIRED.  211 


Redeemer.  As  we  cannot  doubt  that  the 
poor  and  suffering  of  the  present  day  are  as 
much  the  objects  of  Divme  compassion  as 
during  the  personal  ministry  of  Christ,  so  we 
cannot  doubt,  what  should  be  the  mission  of 
his  disciples.  If  the  clergy  are  prevented 
by  circumstances  beyond  their  control,  by 
habits  of  'the  people  not  easily  changed,  by 
institutions  and  artificial  duties  not  of  their 
own  arranging,  but  which  time  has  fastened 
upon  them,  the  example  of  Christ  shines 
none  the  less  brightly  and  its  obligations  lose 
none  of  their  force,  whether  neglected  or  for- 
gotten or  found  to  be  of  difficult  execution. 

The  clergy  of  the  church  of  Rome  and  all 
denominations  of  Christians  since  the  Refor- 
mation have  failed,  as  we  allege,  to  present 
Christianity  to  the  world  in  the  sublime  and 
simple  beauty  in  which  it  was  clothed  by 
its  author  in  his  ministrations.  The  jDapal 
clergy  have  overlaid  it  with  the  su|)erstitious 
mummeries  and  traditions  of  ages  of  dark- 
ness :  through  which  the  faintest  traces  of  the 


212  CHRISTIANITY    SMOTHERED. 


divine  and  pure  original  can  scarcely  be  per- 
ceived. The  Protestant  clergy  have  rescued 
the  Bible  from  the  darkness  of  papal  libraries 
and  have  scattered  it  abroad  over  the  whole 
earth.  They  have  exalted  it  in  the  highest 
terms  of  human  praise.  They  have  studied^ 
commented^  and  explained,  nay  even  tortured 
every  word,  phrase,  and  expression  in  the 
original  and  translations,  for  every  possible 
interpretation :  and  this  they  continue  to  do 
as  one  of  the  most  meritorious  works  of  Chris- 
tian life.  The  result  is,  that  Christianity  is 
smothered  in  theology  and  criticism:  the 
truths  of  revelation  are  wire-drawn  and  spun 
and  twisted  into  the  most  fantastical  shapes 
human  fancy  or  human  logic  can  devise.  A 
system  of  technical  divinity  has  been  con- 
structed which  rivals  in  complexity  all  the 
machinery  of  the  Romish  church. 

From  this  system,  by  a  series  of  strainings, 
condensations,  and  extractions,  they  have  pro- 
duced the  catechisms,  guides,  and  various 
formularies  of  the  different  churches.     These 


CHIEF   TOPICS    OF   ORTHODOXY.  213 


resumes  of  theology  are  taught  more  than  all 
Scripture,  because  they  are  regarded  as  autho- 
ritative abstracts  of  the  truth.  They  con- 
stitute the  landmarks  of  revelation,  the  ske- 
leton of  religion,  the  wires  by  which  the 
Christian  machinery  is  to  be  kept  in  success- 
ful operation.  In  all  this  system,  man  is 
mainly  treated  of  and  regarded  as  a  lost 
sinner,  as  having  fallen  with  his  representa- 
tive head,  Adam,  in  his  first  transgression. 
Christ  is  mainly  regarded  as  having  become 
incarnate,  as  having  endured  the  wrath  of 
God,  the  scoffs  of  the  Jews,  the  agony  of  the 
garden,  the  degrading  death  of  the  cross,  and 
as  having  thus  suffered  and  shed  his  blood  as 
an  expiatory  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  men, 
thereby  atoning  for  their  offences  and  pur- 
chasing remission  of  their  offences, — as  having 
risen  from  the  grave  on  the  third  day,  and 
ascended  to  the  right  hand  of  the  Father, 
there  to  be  the  head  of  the  church  founded 
by  his  incarnation,  crucifixion,  and  resurrec- 
tion. 


214   A  SKELETON  OF  TRUTH  NOT  ENOUGH. 


But  this  hard  and  bony  skeleton  of  truth 
can  never  be  exalted  into  Christianity  until 
it  is  clothed  with  desires,  affections,  kindness, 
charity,  love  to  God,  and  love  to  men.  The 
mission  of  Christ  was  not  merely  incarnation, 
death,  resurrection,  mediation,  and  redemp- 
tion. It  was  also  an  humble  and  lowly  minis- 
tration among  the  poor  and  suffering :  this 
was  his  daily  work.  He  went  about  doing 
good,  ministering  to  the  hungry,  visiting  the 
sick,  and  restoring  the  leprous,  the  blind  and 
lame.  He  preached  constantly  the  doctrines 
of  his  mission,  which,  wherever  felt  and  appre- 
hended, will  secure  a  ministry  engaged  in  the 
very  same  work.  Now,  whether  we  look 
upon  the  whole  mass  of  those  who  are  re- 
garded as  Christ's  ministers,  or  at  those  of 
any  particular  denomination,  we  shall  be 
equally  at  a  loss  to  find  any  class  of  them 
who  are  imitating  the  ministry  of  their  Lord 
and  Master.  Not  only  is  there  no  such  class 
of  ministers,  but  it  is  rare  to  find  one  who 
walks  in  the  footsteps  of  Him  whom  he  pro- 


A   MINISTRY   LIKE    CHRIST'S.  215 


fesses  to  serve ;  it  is  rare  to  find  one  who  even 
comprehends  the  scope  of  his  teaching  who 
spoke  as  never  man  spake.  The  mass  of  these 
nominal  ministers  of  Christ  aim  constantly 
to  maintain  a  position  of  authority  and  in- 
fluence, which  they  have  usurped,  and  not 
only  strive  to  perpetuate,  but  to  enlarge. 

Yast  numbers  are  engaged  in  teaching 
theology,  in  making  weekly  orations,  in  en- 
forcing ecclesiastical  discipline,  and  the  per- 
formance of  duties  of  routine  required  by 
church  regulations,  in  reducing  their  hearers 
to  the  same  level  of  faith  and  doctrine,  in 
bringing  them  to  the  same  line  of  conduct, 
and  in  performing  a  thousand  church  duties, 
which  have  no  warrant  in  the  teachings 
and  no  precedent  in  the  example  of  Christ. 
Let  them  now  be  exhorted  to  review  their 
course  of  ministration,  comparing  it  honestly 
and  intelligently  with  the  instructions  and 
the  conduct  of  their  Master :  let  their  minis- 
try become  constantly  more  like  His.  This 
imports  a  great   and  vital  change,  and  one 


216    CHKISTIAN  CHARITY  EMBRACES  ALL  MEX. 


which  cannot  be  made  at  once.  It  will 
take  time  fully  to  comprehend  the  mighty 
scope  of  the  mission  which  a  thorough  obe- 
dience to  Christ  dictates,  and  which  following 
his  example  implies.  There  is  room  in  this 
for  all  that  human  talents,  or  energy,  or  wis- 
dom, or  piety,  or  goodness  can  accomplish — 
room  for  the  exercise  of  all  the  gifts  the  Deity 
has  bestowed. 

Passing  over  the  main  characteristics  of  a 
ministry  after  the  example  of  Christ — merely 
remarking  that  the  gospel  is  to  be  preached 
to  the  poor ;  the  suffering  are  to  be  succoured ; 
the  sick,  and  those  in  prison,  are  to  be  visited; 
the  hungry  are  to  be  fed,  and  water  to  be  fur- 
nished for  the  thirst}^ — we  proceed  to  designate 
other  duties  belonging  to  this  service,  not 
so  obvious,  but  necessarily  resulting  from  an 
enlarged  view  of  the  field  of  this  ministry. 
The  field  is  the  world ;  and  while  the  labours 
of  the  minister  may  be  chiefly  employed 
among  the  poor  among  whom  his  lot  is  cast, 
he  is  not  to  forget  what  he  owes  to  all  the  race 


MITIGATION   TO    EVERY   HUMAN   ILL.  217 


of  men.     Whilst  the  servant  of  Christ  finds 
himself  surrounded  by  many  that  require  his 
personal  consolations,  teachings,  and  aid,  he 
cannot  but  remember  that  the  world  is  full  of 
sorrow  and  trouble,  of  want  and  degradation, 
of  o]3pression  and  cruelty.     Far  more  than 
half  the  human  race  is  in  a  condition  of  po- 
verty, ignorance,   and   abject  wretchedness. 
While  the  minister  puts  forth  his  hand  for  the 
relief  of  those  that  are  near  him,  his  heart  and 
mind  should  embrace  all  that  his  voice  and 
hand  cannot  reach.     Christianity  offers  ame- 
lioration to  all  cases  of  social  evil — mitigation 
to  every  human  ill.     No  wisdom  of  man  is 
adequate  to  the  rescue  of  humanity  from  the 
social  and  physical  evils  which  oppress  it. 
The  wisdom  of  God  has  long  since  laid  down 
the   rule   which   meets   every   possible   exi- 
gency : — '^  Love  thy  neighbour  as  thyself" 

From  this  rule  let  all  the  practical  duties 
of  life  be  developed.  Christ  himself  furnished 
many  special  deductions  from  this  law ;  but, 
as  we  have  said,  both  his  illustrations  and 


19 


218      WHAT  A  HUNDEED    MINISTERS  COULD  DO. 


the  law  itself  are  almost  unnoticed  in  Pro- 
testant literature  :  there  has  not  been  an  ap- 
proach to  any  adequate  treatment  of  this  sub- 
ject by  any  Protestant  hand.  Let  this  re- 
proach be  speedily  wiped  away.  Let  ministers 
withdraw  for  a  moment  from  the  tread-mill 
work  of  church  routine,  and  reflect  upon  the 
condition  of  all  men,  and  the  applicability 
of  Christianity  to  social  as  well  as  religious 
renovation — to  ameliorate  the  condition  of 
men  in  this  world  as  well  as  to  save  their 
souls  in  the  next.  Since  the  advent  of 
Christ  there  have  lived  professed  ministers 
enough,  if  they  had  performed  a  tithe  of  their 
duty,  to  have  insured  the  blessings  of  Chris- 
tianity to  all  the  world  in  a  much  greater  de- 
gree than  they  are  now  enjoyed  by  the  most 
favoured  portion.  K  one  thousand  ministers 
had  only  laboured  in  this  cause  as  some  have 
laboured — nay,  if  one  hundred  had  so  la- 
boured in  every  generation  since  the  Chris- 
tian era,  we  might  now  look  abroad  upon  a 
Christian  world.    A  hundred  ministers  as  de- 


THE   MASSES   ARE    SEEKING    LIGHT.  219 


voted  to  their  Master's  cause  in  general  as 
Howard  was  to  one  department  of  that  cause, 
w^ould,  in  less  than  a  century,  bring  all  the 
world  to  the  knowledge  of  God  in  Christ.    No  ^ 
mere  proclamation  of  the  truth,  whether  by 
voice  or  by  types,  could  effect  such  a  desirable 
renovation  :  the  seal  of  charity  must  go  with 
the  book,  and  the  liberal  hand  must  accom- 
pany the  voice.     Men  will  never  be  made  to 
know  wdiat  Christianity  is,  until  they  are  made 
to  see  and  feel  it  in  the  conduct  of  Christians. 
It  is  time  that  ministers  were  waking  up  to 
some  better  conception  of  their  mission ;  for 
the  world  is  already  awake,  and  masses  of 
men,  sensible    that   their   condition   in   this 
world  is,  without  fault  of  theirs,  below  their 
true    position,  are   groping   for   amendment, 
seeking  for  light,  and  demanding  aid  in  the 
name  of  a   common   humanity.     They   are 
struggling  in  the  mists  of  ignorance  for  better 
things ;  they  are  devising  plans  for  social  im- 
provement, and  attempting  to  carry  them  out 
in  revolutions  and  bloodshed.     Their  efforts 


220  CONSERVATISM. 


are  convulsing  civilization  to  its  centre.  They 
have  been  oppressed,  trodden  down,  kept  in 
ignorance,  buried  in  superstition.  "What  has 
been  done  for  them  by  ministers  of  state,  or 
ministers  of  Christ  ?  They  have  felt  no  kind 
hand  from  the  state  extended  for  their  relief; 
they  have  seen  no  effort  of  Christianity  in 
their  behalf,  nor  any  adequate  example  of  its 
success  in  ameliorating  the  ills  of  humanity. 
When  these  men  arise  in  mass  to  seek  justice, 
to  hunt  for  that  charity  which  has  not  found 
them,  the  ears  of  slumbering  ministers  of 
Christ  should  tingle  with  mortification  and 
shame  for  having  so  long  neglected  to  preach 
the  gospel  to  these  poor,  and  for  having  so 
long  withheld  from  them  the  blessings  of 
Christianity^ 

Let  not  stern  Christian  conservatives  now 
deride  their  erroneous  schemes  of  social  im- 
provement, and  denounce  as  bad  men  and 
citizens  all  who  make  such  attempts ;  rather 
let  the  voice  of  Christian  ministers  be  heard 
addressing  them  in  tones  of  kindness  and  en- 


CHRISTIAN  KINDNESS  CAN  DO  THE  WORK.     221 


couragementj  giving  assurance  that  in  Chris- 
tianity they  can  find  the  only  hope  of  a 
better  system  of  society,  and  the  only  solution 
of  social  problems :  that  if  it  has  not  per- 
formed any  mighty  achievement  in  social  re- 
generation, it  was  not  the  fault  of  its  princi- 
ples or  its  maxims,  but  of  those  who  professed 
but  did  not  practise  them.  The  highest  aspi- 
ration of  the  most  earnest  reformer  never 
reached  a  point  so  lofty  as,  "  Thou  shalt  love 
thy  neighbour  as  thyself"  Let  those  who  are  ^ 
sighing  for  reform  be  invited  to  unite  in  a  sys- 
tem enjoining  on  its  members,  and  on  all  men, 
more  kindness,  more  charity,  and  more  bro- 
therly love  than  all  the  social  schemes  they 
ever  listened  to  could  imaginel  Let  them  be 
told  that  its  invitations,  promises,  assurances, 
and  rewards  are  specially  addressed  to  the 
poor,  the  suffering  and  oppressed ;  that  it  re- 
quires for  its  success  no  political  revolution, 
permits  no  bloodshed,  but  a  simple  surrender 
of  human  wisdom,  and  an  acceptance  of  that 
of  the  Deity ;  that  they  should  not  only  ask 


19^ 


222         LET  THE  WORLD  SEE  YOUR  KINDNESS. 


Christ  to  come  to  tliem,  but  arise  at  once  and 
go  to  Him.  But  topics  need  not  be  suggested ; 
they  abound,  and  every  minister  will  be  fruit- 
ful in  them  when  he  has  once  opened  his  mind 
and  heart  to  regard  all  the  human  family  as 
within  the  scope  of  Christian  sympathies,  and, 
in  so  far  as  opportunities  offered,  w^ithin  the 
scope  of  clerical  labours.  Let  the  world  clearly 
perceive  that  Christians  are  labouring  with 
untiring  zeal,  not  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
making  proselytes  to  a  sect,  or  slaves  to  a 
church — not  merely  to  swell  the  numbers  and 
glory  of  a  sect,  or  to  increase  the  taxables  of 
a  church,  but  to  promote  the  temporal  com- 
fort and  eternal  welfare  of  all  to  whom  they 
have  access,  and  the  world  will  soon  be  found 
sending  its  hosts  heavenward.  But  the  world 
must  first  be  fed  and  cured  of  its  ailments  and 
sorrows  before  it  will  hear ;  it  must  be  con- 
vinced over  a  banquet  of  "  loaves  and  fishes." 
The  poor  must  be  sure  of  the  disinterested- 
ness of  the  teacher  before  they  will  receive  his 
teachings.     Personal  kindness  will  win  more 


KINDNESS    OPENS    UNWILLING   EARS.  223 


friends  among  them  than  the  highest  elo- 
quence or  the  most  orthodox  theology.  They 
will  believe  you  are  truly  desirous  of  their 
eternal  welfare  when  you  show  yourself  truly 
desirous  of  promoting  their  temporal  well- 
being. 

This  is  no  harsh  judgment.  The  great 
point  to  be  gained,  in  the  progress  of  truth,  is 
to  make  people  willing  to  hear,  and  willing 
to  be  convinced.  As  soon  as  they  are  satis- 
fied, by  your  personal  kindness  or  steady 
zeal  for  their  good,  that  you  are  a  fast  friend, 
they  become  ready  to  hear  from  you  the 
truths  of  the  gospel.  If  Christ  himself  com- 
menced and  carried  on  his  ministry  by  con- 
tinual displays  of  regard  for  the  poor,  how 
much  more  necessary  for  his  ministers  to 
make  their  ministry  one  of  continual  kind- 
ness and  compassion !  No  amount  of  preach- 
ing or  of  prayer  can  compensate  for  the  neg- 
lect of  this  essential  part  of  clerical  duty.  But 
in  this,  as  in  many  other  Christian  duties,  the 
minister  or  priest  can  only  lead  in  Ivind  offices ; 


224     WHERE   DO    THE    POOR    LOVE    THE    CLERGY? 


it  will  be  nearly  in  vain,  if  those  wlio  profess 
to  be  Christians  do  not  follow.  In  this  career 
of  charity,  the  clergy  must  not  only  embark, 
but  their  people  must  be  induced  to  embark 
with  them. 

It  is  strange,  indeed,  that  with  the  example 
and  instructions  of  the  Saviour  before  them, 
ministers  should  have  so  forgotten  their  duties 
to  their  fellow-men  as  not  to  perceive  that 
the  hand  of  charity  must  accompany  the 
tongue  of  truth ;  the  latter  must  enter  into 
the  heart,  but  the  former  must  open  the 
door.  In  what  Protestant  country  are  the 
clergy  regarded  by  the  mass  of  the  poor  as 
their  special  friends  ?  or  rather,  in  which  do 
the  poor  look  to  or  receive  from  ministers 
or  bishops,  as  such,  any  evidences  of  special 
regard,  temporal  or  spiritual,  beyond  what 
may  be  dictated  by  and  subserve  the  interests 
of  such  ministers  and  bishops  themselves? 
Where  has  the  impression  been  adequately 
made  upon  the  poor  that  Christ  is  as  much 
the  friend  of  the  poor  now  as  in  the  days 


CLERICAL    DUTIES   TOO   ARDUOUS.  225 


of  his  sojourning  upon  earth,  only  that  now 
his  disciples  are  appointed  to  do  his  will  and 
execute  his  works  of  mercy  ?  Until  this  im- 
pression is  made,  and  that  by  a  veritable  ful- 
filment of  the  law  of  love,  the  gospel  cannot 
be  preached  to  the  poor,  as  prescribed  and 
intended  in  the  New  Testament. 

It  may  be  said,  the  clergy  are  already 
burdened  beyond  their  strength,  and  •  that 
they  cannot  assume  such  duties  as  are  here 
designated.  True,  they  are  so  burdened,  and 
they  are  constantly  sacrificing  health  and 
life  to  a  mistaken  system.  Two-thirds  of  their  1  ^ 
present  current  duties  should  be  dispensed 
with,  to  make  room  for  the  ministry  of  kind- 
ness, which  would  promote  health  instead 
of  destroying  it,  and  prolong  life  instead  of 
shortening  it.  The  personal  effort  required 
by  a  ministry  of  consolation  and  succour 
among  the  poor,  the  afflicted,  the  sick,  and 
the  imprisoned,  would  give  vigour  to  the 
body  and  nerve  to  the  mind ;  it*would  deepen 
the  affections  and  enlarge  the  views ;  it  would 


226  CHARITY   EXPANDS   THE   INTELLECT, 


confer  a  knowledge  of  Imman  nature  and  an 
insight  into  the  ways  of  Providence  which 
no  other  clerical  training  can  accomplish.  It 
would  show  that  he  who  makes  such  acquisi- 
tions may  carry  to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  a 
commentary  shedding  a  holier  and  purer  light 
than  all  the  volumes  which  human  intellect 
without  such  experience  has  yet  devoted  to 
that  purpose.  A  servant  of  Christ  engaged 
in  the  very  work  in  which  his  Master  laboured 
must  acquire  the  very  knowledge  and  expe- 
rience which  will  enable  him  fully  to  under- 
stand and  appreciate  the  lessons  delivered 
by  Christ  whilst  so  engaged.  The  whole  of 
that  sublime  and  exquisite  system  of  divinity 
and  charity  which  is  taught  in  the  evange- 
lists will  be  gradually  unfolded  to  his  admir- 
ing view.  He  will  soon  glory  in  his  Master, 
in  his  instructions,  and  in  his  work.  With 
this  clear  comprehension  of  the  Scriptures 
which  lie  before  him,  of  the  wants  of  his  fel- 
low-men around  him,  he  can  soon  extend  his 
vision  to  the  whole  field  of  labour,  the  inha- 


AND   SUGGESTS   NEW  TOPICS.  227 


bited  world.     By  this  torch,  he  will  begin  to 
see  the  compromise  now  subsisting  between 
the  spirit  of  this  world  and  the  professed  dis- 
ciples of  Christ,  of  which  the  ministers  of  Christ 
are,  of  every  name,  the  most  determined  sup- 
porters.    His   mind  will  gradually  open  to 
the  consideration  of  topics  and  questions  now 
utterly  eschewed   by  nearly  all  the    clergy 
of  every  church.     Looking  with  indignation 
beyond  that  political  economy  which  regards 
men   as   machines  to   create    and  distribute 
wealth ;  which  upholds  a  competition  which 
grinds  the  labourer  into  a  condition  far  below 
that  of  the  slave ;  which  looks  upon  the  poor 
as   having   come  "  unbidden  to  the  banquet 
of  life,"  he  will  inquire  anxiously  and  boldly 
what  can  be  done  to  ameliorate  the  condition 
of  the  millions  upon  millions  of  his  brethren 
of  the  same  family  and  children  of  the  same 
Heavenly  Father.     Whilst   he  will  bow   to 
every  ordinance  of  man  for  conscience'  sake, 
and  will  neither  meditate  nor   counsel   yio 
lence,  nor  any  uncharitable  or  evil  proceed- 


^ 


228  FEAR    NOT   THE    TRUTH. 


ing,  to  attain  a  good  end,  he  will  permit  no 
false  principles  of  honour,  or  trade,  or  property, 
however  consecrated  by  time,  or  upheld  by 
rank,  wealth,  or  legislation,  to  restrain  him 
from  looking  at  the  naked  truth,  and  from 
pursuing  what  he  shall  deem  the  j)ath  that 
leads  to  human  well-being  in  that  way  which 
may  be  consonant  with  the  teachings  of  Christ. 


FURTHER  MISTAKES  OF  THE  CLERGY. 

The  clergy  fell  into  another  grievous  error 
in  the  first  ages  of  the  church  of  Christ, 
which  clings  in  greater  or  less  degree  to 
all  churches  down  to  the  present  time. 
This  error  is  equally  due  to  human  weak- 
ness, and  is  therefore  as  likely  to  prevail  in 
time  to  come  as  in  time  past.  It  is  the 
more  necessary,  then,  to  be  fully  aware  of 
the  mischief,  that  some  effort  be  exerted 
towards  counteraction.    We  refer  to  the  con- 


DISTRUST   OF   THE    SCRIPTURES.  229 


>/ 


stant  clis^^osition  to  enlarge  or  restrict  the 
bounds  of  revelation.  It  was  early  dis- 
played in  tlie  exertions  of  the  Jewish  con- 
verts to  impose  on  the  disciples  of  Christ 
the  yoke  of  Judaism :  this  was  followed  by 
a  system  of  tradition,  and  this,  by  the  erec- 
tion of  a  hierarchy,  at  the  head  of  which 
was  the  bishop  of  Rome  as  pope  claiming 
equal  authority  in  matters  of  truth  with 
Christ  himself  This  tendency  is  displayed  in 
later  times,  in  the  adoption  of  creeds,  articles 
and  confessions  of  faith,  prayer-books,  cate- 
chisms, and  such  formularies.  Whatever  the 
advantage  a  proper  use  of  such  helps  may  be, 
the  constant  abuse  of  them  has  been  their 
substitution  for  the  plain  and  simple  teach- 
ings of  Christ  and  his  apostles.  There  seems 
to  be  a  constant  apprehension  that  the  latter 
are  insufficient,  and  that  men  must  inevitably 
go  astray  if  left  to  interpret  the  word  of  God 
for  themselves.  It  must,  therefore,  be  taken 
away  from  them,  and  an  entire  system  of  man's 
devisino:  substituted  in  its  stead,  as  is  done  by 


20 


230  ABUSE   OF   CREEDS. 


the  Eomanists ;  or  strict  forms  of  faith  and 
practice  must  be  submitted  for  the  adoj)tion 
of  believers^  who  are  required  to  believe,  not 
in  the  New  Testament,  but  that  the  system 
submitted  is  drawn  from  it,  or  is  in  accordance 
with  it.  None  of  these  are  so  easily  under- 
stood a.s  Christ's  own  words,  but  are  yet 
put  forward  as  standards  of  faith,  as  summa- 
ries of  knowledge,  as  compends  of  instruction 
for  the  old  and  the  young.  We  do  not  ven- 
ture to  depreciate  these  productions  nor  to 
estimate  their  true  value.  It  is  their  abuse 
of  which  we  complain ;  it  is  the  constant  ten- 
dency to  rest  upon  the  paraphrase  instead 
of  the  text,  to  rely  upon  long-drawn  conclu- 
sions instead  of  direct  revelation ;  it  is  the  dis- 
position, not  merely  to  insist  upon  our  taking 
the  Scriptures  as  our  guide,  but  to  prescribe 
how  we  must  take  them ;  it  is  the  limiting 
the  right  of  individual  judgment,  and  nar- 
rowing the  ground  of  j)rivate  opinion,  until 
nothing  is  left  for  the  exercise  of  the  believer's 
mmd.    He  is  required  to  believe,  not  to  think ; 


DANGER   OF   DESERTING   THE    SCRIPTURES.    231 


to  receive  the  conclusions  of  others,  and  not 
to  draw  any  for  himself     It  may  appear  best 
to  the  trained  mind  of  the  theologian  to  bring 
the  minds  of  believers  at  one  step  to  the  con- 
clusions of  that  science,  but  they  forget  that 
the  assent  which  is  thus  given  is  of  no  advan- 
tage to  him  who  gives  it — his  mind  has  not 
derived  it  from  the  word  of  God.     It  may  ap- 
pear safest  and  most  expedient  and  a  saving 
of  labour  thus  to  tax  men's  credence,  but  it 
clearly  involves  the    danger  of  a   desertion 
of  the    Scriptures,  which   contain   the  very 
truths   upon  which  the   minds  of  believers 
are  to  be  employed,  and  stated  in  the  way 
which  the  same  inspiration  dictated.     Who 
can  teach  higher  things  than  Christ  himself 
taught,  and  illustrated  by  his  life,— and  who 
can   make  them  plainer  to  common   minds 
than  they  now  are  ?     Even  Protestant  clergy 
have  failed  to  hold  up  the  Scriptures  as  the 
only  word  of  life,  upon  the  revelations  of  which 
every  man  must  pass  his  own  judgment,  en- 
lightened  as    much  as  may  be   by  clerical 


232  CHILDREN  LED  TO  A  COMPEND  OF  THEOLOGY. 


exposition.  Christ  said,  "  Suffer  little  chil- 
dren to  come  unto  me;"  now  that  Christ  is  no 
more  on  the  earth,  this  exhortation  means, 
"  Suffer  little  children  to  come  to  me"  through 
the  study  of  my  life  and  precepts ;  but  the 
clergy  now  lead  little  children  to  the  cate- 
chism— to  a  compend  of  theology.  Even 
where  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  is  zealously 
pursued  and  inculcated,  the  formula  of  faith 
is  put  forward  as  of  equal  importance  and  au- 
thority. Scores  of  thousands  of  volumes  are 
written  for  the  purpose  of  enforcing,  explain- 
ing, and  defending  these  formularies,  which 
should  be  given  to  the  plainer  duties  of 
the  shepherds  of  a  flock,  many  of  which  are 
sick,  deserted,  in  trouble,  or  straying  from  the 

fold. 

This  is  no  special  or  singular  dereliction 
of  the  clergy  of  the  present  day  :  it  is  a  phase 
of  the  present  state  of  Christianity.  The 
ministers  of  Christ  being  what  the  abuses  and 
errors  of  the  age  have  made  them,  the  cause 
of  Christ  must  suffer  grievously  in  their  hands, 


CANDIDATES   FOR   RICH    CHURCHES.  233 


for  they  are  not  so  much  the  servants  of  Christ 
as  of  their  congregations  or  clerical  superiors. 
They  are  no  longer  ministers  of  peace,  meek- 
ness, and  charity,  but  of  study,  of  learned  po- 
lemical war,  of  worldly,  imperious,  and  unyield- 
ing habits.  What  hosts  of  candidates  for 
the  pastorship  of  rich  churches,  and  yet  how 
few  able  and  popular  ministers  are  found 
labouring  amoiig  the  degraded  and  the  poor ! 
In  fine,  however  much  many  may  perceive 
the  inconsistency  of  their  course  of  life  with 
the  profession  they  make,  they  feel  their  ina- 
bility to  stem  the  current  which  sweeps  them 
onward  in  the  beaten  track  of  sectarian 
forms.  How  few  clergymen  of  any  church 
could  be  strict  imitators  of  their  Master  with- 
out losing  caste,  or  suffering  excommunica- 
tion !  Those  who  can  and  do  come  nearest 
to  their  Master's  example  are  the  missionaries, 
who  give  up  the  comforts  of  home  and  the 
enjoyments  of  social  life,  to  brave  the  oppo- 
sition, the  blindness,  or  the  besotted  idolatry 
of  remote  and  frequently  barbarous  people. 


234  FOREIGN    MISSIONARIES. 


Many  of  these  devoted  men  have,  in  such 
positions,  at  once  perceived  the  true  nature 
of  their  mission.  They  felt  that  the  truths 
they  had  to  announce  could  only  find  access 
to  darkened  minds  by  channels  opened 
through  the  affections.  They  went  among 
the  poor,  and  carried  relief  and  succour  wher- 
ever they  were  able.  They  visited  the  sick, 
administering  medical  aid  without  charge. 
The  lame  and  the  blind  and  the  suffering, 
in  many  cases,  resorted  to  them  in  multi- 
tudes. When  the  missionary  is  a  physician, 
or  is  accompanied  by  one,  the  resemblance  of 
his  mission  approximates  more  closely  to  that 
of  his  Master.  How  profound  the  impression 
which  has  at  various  times  been  made  by  such 
missionaries  !  The  pagan  is  made  to  feel  that 
nothing  in  his  religion  approaches  in  sub- 
hmity  the  beautiful  kindness  of  the  disin- 
terested messenger  of  Christ :  his  great  diffi- 
culty is  to  realize  that  such  kindness  is  real ; 
that  there  is  not  some  lurking  selfishness, 
some    covert   design   concealed    from   sight. 


HEATHEN    OBJECTIONS.  235 


Every  doubtj  however,  falls  before  a  continued 
ministry  of  kindness  to  tlie  poor,  to  the  af- 
flicted, and  to  children  :  the  missionary  might 
rejoice  in  conquests  for  his  Master  greater  than 
his  most  sanguine  dreams  ever  anticipated, 
but  for  the  practical  repudiation  which  Chris- 
tendom affords  of  Christian  principles  and 
practice. 

What  can  the  missionary  in  India  say 
to  objections  raised  upon  the  conduct  of 
officers,  agents,  soldiers,  and  servants  of  the 
East  India  Company,  who  are  all  reputed  to 
be  Christians  by  the  natives  ?  What  can  the 
missionary  in  China  say  in  defence  of  that 
Christianity  which  forces  opium  upon  the 
Chinese  at  the  cannon's  mouth  ?  What  can 
the  missionary  to  the  Sandwich  Islands  say 
for  the  conduct  of  the  people  of  Christian  na- 
tions who  touch  there ;  and  of  those  who  force 
brandy  upon  them  under  the  guns  of  men-of- 
war  ;  and  what  can  the  missionaries  to  the 
poor  Indians  of  this  country  say  to  the  policy 
which  has  driven  them  from  their  homes,  de- 


236  PROTESTANTISM. 


prived  them  of  their  lands,  and  exterminated 
tribe  after  tribe  ? 

Mere  Protestantism  makes  no  claim  upon 
the  sympathies  or  affections  of  any  people ; 
and  when  the  law  of  kindness  is  held  up  as 
the  law  of  Christian  life,  the  idolater  points 
to  the  conduct  of  Christian  nations  and  the 
lives  of  the  people.  Some  among  them  are 
always  ready  to  avail  themselves  of  this  means 
of  discrediting  the  new  worship,  and  show 
themselves  well-informed  as  to  the  delin- 
quencies of  Christian  life.  The  barrier  to  the 
success  of  the  missionary  is  not  merely  the 
inconsistency  between  Christian  precepts  and 
practice — it  is  the  practical  denial  of  the  great 
law  of  charity  which  the  missionary  jDreaches, 
and  in  his  own  life  exemplifies.  This  law  or 
rule  of  life,  which  would  soon  bear  Christianity 
into  all  the  world,  not  being  respected  by 
Christians,  cannot  secure  the  confidence  of  the 
heathen,  multitudes  of  whom  regard  it  as  a 
pretence  and  a  covering  for  more  designing 
selfishness  and  deeper  iniquity.     We  think  it 


MISSIONARIES    LOOKING    BACK.  237 


right  thus  to  distinguish  between  the  mission- 
aries and  other  clergy,  because  the  former 
present  to  our  minds  the  only  true  exemplars 
of  a  Christian  ministry.  When  once  engaged 
in  their  work  of  love,  they  look  back  upon 
the  narrowness  of  sectarian  views  with  horror 
and  surprise.  They  regard  the  squabbles  of 
ecclesiastical  assemblies  with  pain  and  morti- 
fication. They  begin  to  understand  their  mis- 
sion as  ministers  of  Christ,  and  to  see  how  lit- 
tle that  mission  is  comprehended  by  theolo- 
gians and  divines,  the  well-paid  ministers  of 
rich  congregations,  many  of  whom  plume 
themselves  chiefly  upon  being  the  successors 
of  the  apostles,  whilst  they  are  certainly  not 
even  earning  the  title  of  the  humblest  of 
Christ's  servants. 


238 


TOPICS  FOR  THE  COXSIDERATION  OF  CHRISTIAN 

TEACHERS. 

*/  The  sins  of  society  are  the  sins  of  the  indi- 
viduals of  which  it  is  composed,  however  will- 
ing the  individuals  are  to  shift  or  cast  off  the 
responsibility.  Christians  are  thus  accountable 
for  much  iniquity  which  they  might  ]3revent. 
They  become  hardened,  by  custom,  to  that 
which  is  occurring  all  around  them ;  but  their 
duty  is  not  less  binding,  to  overcome  the  ills 
of  society,  and  to  point  out  the  errors  which 
are  consecrated  by  habit.  AYhen  they  become 
able  to  lay  aside  the  pride  of  position,  the 
conservative  stubbornness  of  an  easy  life,  and 
to  regard  the  present  constitution  of  society 
under  the  full  light  of  Christ's  life  and  pre- 
cepts, they  will  find  abundant  cause  of  lamen- 
tation. They  will  find  that  almost  all  the 
maxims  and  requirements  of  business  are  op- 
posed in  spirit  and  results  to  these  precepts. 


MAXIMS  OF  THE  WORLD.  239 

/That  stern  punctuality  which  is  the  essence 
of  business  morality,  and  which  exacts  a  ful- 
filment of  engagements  with  so  little  forbear- 
ance that  thousands  are  ruined  whom  a  very 
little  forbearance  would  save,  may  be  indis- 
pensable to  the  progress  of  commerce,  but  is 
irreconcilable  with  those  precepts  which  en- 
join upon  us  to  love  our  neighbour  as  our- 
selves, and  with  that  prayer  which  asks  "  for- 
giveness of  sins,  for  we  also  forgive  every  one 
that  is  indebted  to  us." 

That  fierce  and  unfaltering  competition  in 
the  race  of  business  so  much  exalted  by  poli- 
tical economists  as  the  best  regulator  of  in- 
dustry, may  be  very  useful  in  extinguishing 
all  those  sympathies  which  weaken  human 
efforts  when  directed  against  each  other,  and 
in  sharpening  all  those  energies  which  are  ap- 
plied to  the  purpose  of  amassing  wealth,  grasp- 
ing power,  and  ministering  to  all  other  ends 
of  human  selfishness ;  but  little  accords  with 
the  demands  of  human  brotherhood.  That 
ravenous  and  untiring  pursuit  of  wealth  so  cha- 


240  THE   LAWS   OF   BUSINESS. 


racteristic  of  Protestant  activity — that  adding 
of  field  to  field  and  barn  to  barn,  or  heaping 
up  treasures  of  this  world,  or  that  lavish  ex- 
penditure which  squanders  with  as  much  zeal 
as  it  accumulates — may  be  a  necessary  accom- 
paniment of  the  doctrine  which  teaches  the 
propriety  of  encouraging  whatever  gives  vigour 
to  the  mind  and  body,  and  confirms  the  sacred 
rights  of  property,  that  is,  of  doing  what  we 
please  with  our  own ;  but  all  this  little  com- 
ports with  the  stewardship  of  Christ's  disciples, 
or  with  the  command,  "  Go  sell  that  thou  hast 
and  give  to  the  poor.'^ 

This  buying  at  the  cheapest  possible  rate, 
not  regarding  the  hardship  to  him  who  sells, 
and  selling  at  the  dearest  rate  possible,  not 
regarding  the  interest  of  him  wdio  buys — this 
position  in  trade  or  in  society  which  makes 
it  not  only  the  interest,  but  the  natural  course, 
of  every  one  to  prey  upon  his  fellow-men  to 
the  full  extent  of  his  power  and  cunning,  is 
well  fitted  to  carry  selfishness  to  its  highest 
limits,  and  to  extinguish  every  spark  of  mutual 


INDUSTRY  AND  COMFORT,  THEN  TRADE.   241 


kindness,  but  is  very  inconsistent  with  the 
duty  or  the  policy  of  keeping  out  of  the  way 
of  temptation.  This  idea  of  considering  men 
as  mere  machines  for  the  purpose  of  creating 
and  distributing  wealth,  may  do  very  well  to 
round  off  the  periods,  the  syllogisms,  and  state- 
ments of  political  economists ;  but  the  whole 
notion  is  totally  and  irreconcileably  at  va- 
riance with  Christianity,  which  teaches  that 
all  the  world  is  of  less  value  thvan  one  soul ; 
and  that,  in  ascertaining  the  true  interests  of 
men,  we  should  first  direct  our  attention  to 
those  measures  which  may  best  secure  physi- 
cal comfort,  peace,  and  happiness  in  this  world, 
and  the  best  preparation  for  the  world  to  come ; 
and  afterwards  to  those  which  may  create 
the  largest  amount  of  wealth,  not  merely 
for  the  benefit  of  free  trade, — that  unre- 
strained action  of  merchants,  which  makes 
them  arbiters  of  the  condition  of  millions 
who  toil  to  produce  what  they  buy  and  sell, 
and  fetch  and  carry,  at  charges  fixed  by  them- 
selves. 


21 


242    POOR  men's  labour  needs  protection 


The  doctrine  tliat  propert}^,  real  and  per- 
sonal, must,  under  all  circumstances,  remain 
inviolate,  always  under  the  ever  watchful 
vigilance  of  the  law,  and  its  invaders  subject  to 
the  severest  penalties  of  dungeon  or  damages, 
may  be  very  essential  to  the  maintenance 
of  our  present  social  system,  but  totally  dis- 
regards the  consideration  that  labour,  the 
poor  man's  capital,  hi^  only  property,  should, 
as  his  only  means  of  securing  a  comfortable 
subsistence,  be  also  under  the  special  care 
and  safeguard  of  tj^e  law.  The  doctrine  that 
trade  should  be  entirely  free — that  is,  that 
merchants  should  be  perfectly  at  liberty, 
throughout  the  world,  to  manage  their  busi- 
ness in  that  way  which  best  promotes  their 
interests,  may  siiit  very  well  for  merchants, 
making  them  masters  of  the  industry  of  the 
world ;  but  it  will  be  giving  a  small  body  of 
men  a  power  over  the  bones  and  sinews  of 
their  fellow-men,  which  it  would  be  contrary 
to  all  our  knowledge  of  human  nature  if  they 
do  not  fatally  abuse ;  because  they  are  in- 


AS  MUCH  AS  RICH  MEN'S  PROPERTY.  243 


terested  to  reduce  the  avails  of  labour  to  the 
lowest  attainable  point,  as  the  best  means  of 
enlarging  their  business  and  increasing  their 
gains. 

That  philosophy  which  teaches  that  men 
should  always  be  left  to  the  care  of  them- 
selves; that  labour  is  a  merely  marketable 
article,  which  should  be  left,  like  others,  to 
find  its  own  market  value,  without  reference 
to  the  welfare  of  the  man,  may  appear  plausi- 
ble to  those  who  forget  the  Fatherhood  of  God 
and  the  brotherhood  of  man ;  but  is  utterly 
at  variance  with  His  precepts  who  taught  that 
those  who  were  sent  to  work  at  the  eleventh 
hour  should  receive  the  same  as  those  who 
had  borne  the  burden  and  heat  of  the  day. : 

We  might  thus  go  on,  indicating  topic  after 
topic,  in  endless  variety,  linked  by  their  rela- 
tions with  the  welfare  of  men  in  this  world 
and  their  hope  of  the  world  to  come,  all  of 
which  deserve  the  serious  examination  of 
those  who  are  shepherds  of  Christ's  flock. 
These  and  many  more  such  subjects  are  not 


244  TOPICS    FOR    CHRISTIAN   MINISTERS. 


merely  political,  or  politico-economical ;  they 
concern  men's  temporal  well-being,  and, 
through  that,  have  a  vital  bearing  on  their 
eternal  prospects.  They  demand,  therefore, 
the  most  earnest  attention  of  Christians  and 
Christian  ministers,  as  of  far  greater  import- 
ance to  the  progress  of  religion  than  innu- 
merable topics  of  theology  which  have  here- 
tofore and  do  yet  engross  so  large  a  portion 
of  their  time  and  talents.  If  the  scrutiny  and 
time  and  talents  which  have  thus  been  mis- 
applied, had,  with  equal  industry  and  zeal, 
been  turned  to  the  science  of  human  well-be- 
ing, we  should  not  now  lament  the  little  pro- 
gress which  has  been  made  in  that  great  and 
much-abused  department  of  knowledge,  j 

What  has  been  so  long  neglected  remains 
to  be  done  ;  the  social  economy  which  will  re- 
solve the  most  difficult  questions  yet  proposed, 
must  be  developed  by  Christians  from  the 
teachings  of  Christ  and  his  apostles.  And  so 
developed  that  tliQ  exemplification  may  ac- 
company the  truth ;  that  precept  and  practice 


THE    CHRISTIAN    SOCIAL    PROBLEM.  245 


may  travel  together,  and  reflect  a  mutual 
light  on  their  progress.  In  this  lies  the  pro- 
blem, the  solution  of  which  will  determine 
the  advance  of  real  Christianity  and  all  the 
blessings  it  bestows. 


PRINCIPLES  UPON  WHICH  REFORMS,  SOCIAL  AND 
RELIGIOUS,  SHOULD  BE  CONDUCTED. 

In  reference  to  the  advance  of  human  well- 
being,  there  is,  perhaps,  no  subject  which  more 
requires  the  close  attention  of  Christian  men 
and  ministers  of  the  gospel  than  tlie  manner 
of  effecting  reforms  in  religion  and  politics 
and  social  economj^  It  is  so  much  more  easy 
to  see  and  tell  what  is  best  in  these  respects 
•  than  to  advise  how  it  is  to  be  accompHshed, 
that  whilst  the  world  has  never  been  without 
attractive  schemes  and  theories  of  human  wel- 
fare, very  few  have  been  found  who  could  suc- 
cessfully accomplish  any  beneficial   change. 

21* 


246        WHO    FIRST    IN    EVERY    GOOD   REFORM. 


It  would  be  imjDossible  to  estimate  or  conjec- 
ture the  amount  of  evil  inflicted  on  the  human 
family  by  ill-conducted  efforts  at  reform.  How 
many  laudable  plans  have  wholly  failed  for 
want  of  wisdom  and  moderation  in  their  sup- 
porters !  How  much  has  real  progress  been  re- 
tarded by  unseasonable,  unwise,  and  ill-directed 
labours !  It  is  not  enough  that  Christians  should 
desire  to  promote  the  highest  interests  of  hu- 
manity ;  that,  under  the  light  of  Christian  truth, 
they  should  enter  into  all  the  subjects  which 
pertain  to  human  welfare,  social  and  religious ; 
but  it  is  equally  their  duty  to  step  into  the 
arena  of  acti^^e  reform,  and  carry  thither  all  the 
light,  all  the  wisdom,  self-control,  and  influ- 
ence they  can  command.  They  should  be 
ready  to  take  the  lead  in  every  movement 
which  promises  to  ameliorate  the  condition 
of  men.  They  should  not  permit  the  direction 
of  such  movements  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  j 
those  who  are  prompt  to  seize  it  from  motives] 
of  interest  or  ambition. 

Men  emancipated  from  the  clouds  of  super- 


WHO   SHALL   GUIDE  THE   INQUIRING?  247 


stitioiij  and  the  grasp  of  power,  whose  minds 
are  free  to  act,  will  not  be  idle  in  thought  or 
in  deed.  Who  shall  direct  the  masses  that  are 
now,  and  soon  are  to  become,  thus  free  ?  Who 
should  be  the  best  friends  of  the  poor,  the  igno- 
rant, and  the  inquiring  ?  If  these  multitudes 
should  be  promptly  acted  upon  and  led  into 
error  by  designing  and  mistaken  men,  who 
should  be  the  first  to  extend  a  hand  to  guide 
them  into  the  true  path  ?  Who  so  properly, 
as  those  who  have  in  their  hands,  and  should 
have  in  their  hearts  and  minds,  that  true  phi- 
losophy which  alone  affords  elements  for  the 
solution  of  all  questions  of  human  well-being  ? 
It  is  difficult  to  detect  all  the  errors,  falla- 
cies, and  temptations  to  wrong  which  have  lain 
in  the  path  of  reformers,  and  on  which  some 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  richly-laden  vessels 
ever  freighted  with  human  interests  have  suf- 
fered wreck  and  destruction.  These  rocks 
cannot  all  be  pointed  out  and  laid  down ;  but 
some  of  the  more  dangerous  may  be  selected 
for  special  remark. 


248      NATURE,  PROVIDENCE,  AND  HOLY  WRIT. 


God  sjoeaks  to  us  none  the  less  plainly  and 
authoritatively  in  the  volumes  of  Nature  and 
Providence  because  he  speaks  to  us  also  in  a 
special  revelation.  We  may  not  fully  under- 
stand this  teaching  of  Nature  or  Providence 
but  with  the  aid  of  revelation ;  yet  with  this 
aid,  we  must  not  neglect  to  study  and  try  to 
comprehend.  God  is  the  Creator  and  Gover- 
nor of  the  world,  as  well  as  the  Author  of  the 
Scriptures.  His  precepts  and  his  administra- 
tion must  be  consistent:  we  must  therefore 
construe  these  volumes  of  Nature,  and  Provi- 
dence, and  Holy  Writ,  by  the  light  they  mu- 
tually reflect  u]3on  each  other.  He  that  is 
blind  to  Providence  and  deaf  to  the  voice  of 
Nature,  can  never  adequately  understand  the 
instructions  of  revelation.  It  is  a  common  sin 
of  men  to  exalt  themselves  above  God,  and  to 
pretend  to  a  wisdom  above  his  wisdom.  Many 
reformers  would  stem  the  whole  current  of  the 
Divine  administration,  and  stop  the  course  of 
Providence.  They  would  instantaneously 
banish  all  evil  from  the  world,  and  extirpate 


GOOD  AND  EVIL  BLENDED  IN  MAN'S  LOT.      249 


all  tliat  is  hurtful,  dangerous,  and  offensive  in 
the  kingdom  of  nature  and  in  the  province  of 
humanity.  fUpon  their  showing,  these  things 
should  neverliave  existed,  and  should  now, 
without  a  moment's  delay,  be  brought  to  an 
unconditional  termination.  They  take  no  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  evil,  nor  of  its  permitted 
*  continuance  by  a  Being  who  could  bring  the 
movements  of  the  universe  to  an  end,  if  he 
chose ;  but  they  would,  without  hesitation,  un- 
der guidance  of  their  own  wisdom,  change  the 
whole  order  of  Providence,  and  reverse  the 
course  of  the  Divine  government.; 

Even  the  Scriptures,  taken  alone,  furnish 
the  same  blended  picture  of  good  and  evil,  all 
occurring  under  the  same  wise  Euler.  Those,  ^^ 
then,  who  w^ould  put  an  end  to  evil  in  any 
other  w\ay  than  that  which  is  contemplated  in 
the  Divine  teachings,  are  making  themselves 
wiser  than  the  Governor  of  the  universe.  The 
Deity  has  ever  permitted  the  existence  and 
the  use  of  evil  in  his  administration  of  the  af- 
fairs of  men:  to  how  many  is  the  way  to 


♦ 


250       NEARLY   ALL    MEN   HAVE    BEEN    SLAVES. 


heaven  through  the  furnace  of  afflictions! 
Who  can  recount  the  sufferings  and  the  sor- 
rows of  the  people  of  God  ?  or  who  describe  a 
tithe  of  the  agony  which  men  have  endured 
in  this  world  ?  By  far  the  largest  number  of 
human  beings  who  have  had  a  place  on  the 
earth  since  the  dawn  of  history,  have  been 
slaves — slaves  in  the  usual  acceptation  of  the 
word ;  slaves  to  despotic  sway ;  slaves  to  mili- 
tary rule;  slaves  to  priestly  domination; 
slaves  to  the  feudal  system ;  slaves  to  capital, 
to  competition,  to  the  fear  of  starvation.  The 
'  worst  passions  of  men  have  long  rioted  in 
mutual  injuries  and  in  endless  wars  about 
the  most  unimportant  things.  Thrice  as  many 
men  have  fallen  by  the  hands  of  their  fellow- 
men  as  are  now  living  on  earth. 
/  Against  evils  of  such  enormous  magnitude, 
no  other  weapon  has  been  provided  by  Chris- 
tianity than  those  of  charity — brotherly  kind- 
ness. The  Christian  scheme  is  to  renew  and 
regenerate  the  man ;  to  inspire  him  with  new 
tastes,  new  feelings,  new  aims,  higher  aspira- 


THE   CHRISTIAN   RULE   OF    REFORM.  251 


tions^  and,  by  making  better  men,  to  put  an 
end  to  the  crimes,  excesses,  bloodshed,  and  op- 
pression which  have  so  long  reigned  in  the 
world.  When  the  disciples  of  Christ  would 
have  invoked  the  fire  of  heaven  upon  his  ene- 
mies,  he  rebuked  them,  and  told  them  they 
little  knew  the  spirit  they  were  of;  that  is, 
they  little  knew  they  were  instigated  in  this 
by  the  spirit  of  the  prince  of  this  world.  We  -^ 
must,  therefore,  under  his  teaching,  give  up 
the  spirit  of  revenge  for  wrong  suffered,  the 
spirit  of  violence,  and  the  spirit  of  reproach,  in 
accomplishing  all  reforms,  and  expect  the  Di- 
vine approval  only  when  we  proceed  in  the 
way  of  Divine  appointment.  We  may  not,  if 
we  have  the  power,  destroy  the  oppressor,  nor 
even  overwhelm  him  with  indignant  reproach. 
We  may  not  seize  the  combatants  at  the  mo- 
ment they  are  about  to  engage  in  deadly 
strife,  and  hold  them  in  iron  grasp  while  their 
veins  swell  with  increasing  rage ;  but  we  must  v/ 
change  the  oppressor  into  a  benefactor,  and 
the   deadly   combatants   into    brethren   and 


252  ABUSES    OF   REFCnMEKS. 


peacemakers.  If  this  be  a  long  process,  the 
delay  is  unavoidable ;  for  God  permits  no  other 
mode.  If  generations  pass  away  before  this 
reform  is  effected,  it  is  our  fault,  who  hold  the 
truth,  but  do  not  exemplify  it.  But  the  delay 
is  unavoidable ;  for  no  other  mode  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Divine  government. 

It  cannot  be  denied,  that  the  cause  of  re- 
form in  religion,  politics,  and  social  economy 
has  suffered,  and  not  undeservedly,  from  the 
faults  and  vagaries  of  those  wlio  have,  in  all 
ages  of  the  world,  offered  themselves  as  re- 
formers. It  has  too  often  happened  that  the 
prosecution  of  the  best  reforms  has  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  the  worst  men.  All  reform  re-  -^ 
quires  industry,  energy,  and  indomitable  -per- 
severance.  These  qualities  are  frequently 
found  among  those  who  are  destitute  of  all 
good  principles,  and  who  embark  in  the  cause 
of  reformation  from  interested  motives,  or  for 
the  mere  sake  of  the  excitement  and  distinc- 
tion which  a  new  career  affords.  Such  men, 
not  having  the  main  object  in  view,  turn  the 


THE  FEARS  OF  THE  PRUDENT.       253 


wliole  progress  of  events  to  serve  their  own 
purposes,  or  commit  such  excesses  and  are 
guilty  of  such  outrages  as  bring  reproach  and 
contempt  upon  the  cause  they  advocate,  and 
finally  beget  a  resistance  to  further  progress 
which  cannot  be  overcome.  Keforms  are  thus 
often  wholly  ruined  by  the  unfitness  or  wick- 
edness of  those  who  usurp  their  management, 
or  smothered  by  the  imprudent  zeal  of  those 
who  need  better  guidance.  Seeing  how  thorny 
and  difficult  this  path  has  always  been,  and 
how  many  a  good  cause  has  suffered  ship- 
w^reck  for  want  of  good  pilots,  it  is  not  to  be 
w^ondered  that  good  men  stand  aloof,  fearing 
to  enter  a  career  in  which  so  many  not  only 
fail  to  achieve  the  good  they  aim  at,  but  com- 
mit a  world  of  mischief,  which,  perhaps,  they 
did  not  contemplate.  It  is  so  common  for 
those  who  leave  the  beaten  track  on  the  great 
subjects  of  religion  and  the  temporal  interests 
of  humanity,  to  wander  far  beyond  the  sphere 
of  truth — once  swung  from  their  accustomed 
moorings,  to  push  far  out  into  a  trackless  and 

22 


254      HATING  ERROR  WITHOUT  LOVING  WISDOM. 


uncertain  ocean,  without  compass  or  chart — 
that  many  of  the  most  prudent,  dreading  the 
loss  of  present  advantages,  refuse  to  step  from 
the  trodden  road  of  routine,  or  to  cast  their 
eyes  into  regions  beyond  the  ordinary  range 
of  their  vision ;  and  regard  such  wanderings 
as  sinful  and  dangerous.  As  soon  as  they  ob- 
serve a  man  adventuring  upon  new  ground 
or  unused  investigations,  they  look  upon  him 
as  in  the  path  of  danger,  if  not  in  the  road  to 
destruction.  Thus  is  born  a  stern  and  im- 
movable conservatism,  which  reverences  p)ru- 
dence  more  than  truth — which  fears  error 
more  than  it  loves  wisdom.  Into  this  mis- 
taken disposition  the  best  may  fall,  because 
the  best  are  most  apt  to  mistrust  their  own 
powers  and  doubt  their  own  fitness.  Where 
this  prevails  in  any  community,  the  spirit  of 
inquiry  is  repressed,  if  not  extinguished,  and 
none  but  erratic,  ill-balanced,  and  ill-disci- 
plined minds  venture,  against  the  weight  of 
public  opinion,  to  depart  from  the  usual  routes 
of  thought  and  action.     The  prudence  of  the 


DUTY   LEADS    ONWARD.  255 


wise,  carried  too  far,  but  heightens  the  ab- 
surdity of  the  foolish,  and  thus,  unhappily, 
throws  additional  discredit  upon  the  path  of 
research  and  reformation. 
u-^^ni  although  all  these  snares,  temptations, 
and  obstacles  beset  the  path  of  reform,  it  is 
none  the  less  our  duty  to  struggle  onward.   It 
is  in  the  order  of  God's  providence  thus  to  try 
our  courage  and  fortitude  at  every  step,  and 
thus  to  strengthen  the  intellect,  the  good  af- 
fections, and  the  watchfulness  of  his  servants, 
by  giving  full  exercise  to  every  faculty  of  pro- 
gressive energy  and  passive  endurance.    It  is 
His  will,  that  whilst  His  people   are  doing 
good  to  their  fellow-men,  they  shall  be  build- 
ing themselves  up  in  spiritual  vigour  and  men- 
tal power,  thus  enlarging  their  capacities  for 
higher   enjoyment   in   the  world  of  spirits. 
Christians   must   not   stand   still   while    by^^ 
far  the  largest  portion  of  men  are  estranged 
from  their  Master,  and  while  strife,  oppression, 
bloodshed,  and  evil  rule  throughout  all  the 
world.     They  must  not  only  fulfil  the  voca-  ^ 


256      BE   THE    KNOWN    FRIENDS    OF    THE   POOR. 


tion  to  brotherly  kindness  to  the  individuals 
around  them,  but  they  must  study  every  pro- 
blem of  humanity  which  is  displayed  before 
them,  and  do  what  they  can  for  multitudes 
both  near  and  at  a  distance.  It  should  be  true, 
and  be  known  to  be  true,  that  they  are  inces- 
santly occupied  in  studying  the  temporal  and 
eternal  interests  of  men ;  that  they  are  ready 
to  go  forward  upon  every  occasion  and  every 
moment  when  relief  can  be  afforded,  sorrow 
soothed,  suffering  alleviated — when  any  reform 
can  be  effected,  with  advantage  in  the  mode 
of  accomplishing  it  and  permanent  results  for 
the  end. 
^  It  should  be  known  and  felt  by  the  masses 
of  degraded  and  suffering  men,  that  Christians 
seize  every  occasion*"  of  labouring  for  their 
good — as  it  should  be  known  to  the  rulers  of 
all  countries,  that  reforms  conducted  by  Chris- 
tians involve  neither  bloodshed,  nor  rebellion, 
nor  disorganization,  but  the  best  interests  of 
all  concerned,  social,  intellectual,  and  reli- 
gious.    But  Christians  can  only  create  this 


REFORM    OF    SLAVERY.  25T 


impression  by  engaging  efficiently  in  this 
work,  by  wise  solutions  of  the  various  ques- 
tions involved,  and  by  perseveringly  pursuing 
the  instructions  and  footsteps  of  their  divine 
Master.  His  precepts  contain  elements  for  the 
solution  of  all  the  problems  of  social  well-be- 
ing, and  the  mode  of  accomplishing  all  desira- 
ble reforms.  When  the  object  is  to  abolish 
slavery,  the  Christian  process  will  be  to  incite 
masters  to  love  and  cherish  their  slaves  as 
immortal  beings  under  their  charge,  and  to 
teach  the  slaves  to  love  and  obey  their  mas- 
ters, under  whom,  in  the  order  of  Providence, 
they  are  placed.  Under  this  teaching,  a  pa- 
triarchal relation  will  arise  between  the  mas- 
ter and  his  slave ;  the  fetters  will  drop  off; 
the  one  will  become  a  father,  and  the  others 
children;  and,  finally,  when  the  master  is 
brought  to  the  point  of  emancipation,  the  ser- 
vants are  brought  to  that  preparation  for 
liberty  which  enables  them  to  accept  the  boon 
with  advantage,  and  to  begin  the  career  of 
freedom  under  the   more  than  friendly  eye 


22^ 


258  POLITICAL    REFORM. 


of  their  former  master,  and  now  employer; 
or  to  enter  upon  any  other  enter j)rise  for 
which  their  habits  or  education  might  fit 
them. 

So  in  poHtical  reform.  The  precepts  and 
example  of  Christ  should  be  brought  to  bear, 
by  love  and  acts  of  kindness,  upon  kings  and 
rulers,  and  upon  subjects  and  citizens,  at  the 
same  time.  This  wisdom,  which  came  from 
on  high,  if  properly  applied  by  such  as  exem- 
plify what  they  teach,  will,  in  due  time,  leaven 
the  whole  mass.  The  grasp  of  authority  will 
be  relaxed,  the  complaints  of  the  oppressed 
will  gradually  cease,  as  the  process  of  that  re- 
form goes  on,  which  lightens  the  cares  and 
labours  of  authority  while  it  removes  the 
burdens  of  obedience,  \  ;. 

^  But  all  these  are  labours  of  love,  as  well 
as  words  of  truth.  These  lessons  must  be 
imparted  to  the  master  as  well  as  the  slave, 
to  the  despot  as  well  as  the  subject,  by  those 
who  never  forget  the  example  nor  the  pre- 
cepts of  their  Divine  Teacher.    There  can  be 


TRUE  REFORMER  MAY  GO  WHERE  HE  WILL.     259 


no  doubt  that  tliose,  whether  many  or  few, 
who  conform  to  His  rules,  may  go  everywhere 
and  deliver  the  words  of  warning  and  of  truth 
to  everybody,  rich  and  poor,  bond  and  free, 


hio:h  and  low. 

o 


INFIDELITY,  AND  SOME  OF  ITS  EXCITING  CAUSES. 

Many  Christian  writers  have  attempted  the 
task  of  exposing  the  causes  and  progress  of 
infidelity.  If  we  have  been  in  any  degree 
successful  in  bringing  our  train  of  thought 
and  inquiry  before  the  reader,  we  think  he 
will  be  satisfied  that  the  grand  cause  of  un- 
belief is  to  be  found  in  the  abuses  of  Chris- 
tianity. The  prevalent  unbelief  has  for  its 
object  not  the  truths  of  revelation,  but  the 
opinions  and  conduct  of  those  vv^ho  profess  to 
be  Christians.  We  all  know  how  this  ope- 
rates on  a  small  scale  among  the  individuals 
around  us ;  and  we  may  well  infer  that  it 
operates  still  more  potently  upon  multitudes 


v^ 


260     INFIDELITY  AND   ITS   EXCITING   CAUSES. 


than  upon  individuals.  In  Catholic  countries, 
the  most  of  those  who  escape  the  fetters  of 
ignorance  and  superstition  regard  Christianity 
as  a  system  of  fraud  and  oppression,  designed 
to  cheat  and  govern  men.  They  become  infi- 
dels, because  they  confound  Christianity  Avith 
its  professors.  In  Protestant  countries,  the 
wrangling  disputes  and  uncharitable  bearing 
of  the  various  churches  carry  disgust  and 
dislike  wherever  they  are  witnessed.  Men 
cannot  believe  that  is  a  pure  fountain  from 
which  such  uncleanness  flows.  They  are 
repelled  and  not  attracted  by  the  exhibition, 
and  easily  draw  the  conclusion  that  whether 
there  is  anything  real  in  Christianity  or  not, 
they  must  be  as  safe  for  eternity  as  those 
i  whose  j)rc)fession  accords  so  ill  with  their 
lives.  It  would  be  difficult  to  over-estimate 
the  prevalence  of  such  feelings,  or  their  influ- 
ence  in  turning  men  from  the  path  of  obe- 
dience and  piety.  Many  say  in  their  hearts, 
if  they  do  not  pronounce  aloud,  that  if  certain 
persons  or  classes  of  men  are  really  bound 


jmen's  natural  aversion  to  holiness.  261 


heavenward,  they  do  not  wish  to  go — they 
will  take  an  023posite  direction.  Are  they 
excusable  for  thus  rejecting  Christianity, 
through  the  fault  of  its  professed  friends  ? 
Certainly  not :  but  how  is  that  to  be  re- 
conciled with  the  Christian  duty  of  winning 
souls  to  Christ,  when  their  conduct  repels 
more  than  it  attracts  ?  It  may  be  said  that 
the  aversion  of  the  natural  man  to  Chris- 
tianity is  such  that  it  need  not  be  wondered 
if  he  turns  away  from  holiness.  Something 
is  due  to  this  consideration,  but  it  has  less 
foundation  than  manj^  good  people  imagine. 
It  is  true  that  in  the  days  of  Christ's  sojourn 
on  earth,  the  priests,  the  rich,  and  noble,  for 
the  most  part,  rejected  his  mission  with  scorn ; 
but  it  is  equally  true  that  multitudes,  at- 
tracted by  his  kindness,  and  by  his  preaching, 
flocked  after  him :  these  multitudes  were  so 
great,  that  the  priests  feared  the  people,  al- 
though they  had  all  the  authorities  and  the 
Roman  soldiers  at  their  command.  .  How 
many  were  deterred  by  the  threats  and  ma- 


262  MEN   LOVE    PURE    CHRISTIANS 


nagement  of  the  priests  from  following  Christ, 
we  know  not.  The  fact  w^as  that  the  minis- 
trations of  Christ  were  in  a  high  degree  at- 
tractive, and  nine-tenths  of  the  whole  nation 
would  probably  have  followed  after  him,  but 
for  the  measures  taken  to  repress  the  move- 
ment. So  the  persecutions  encountered  by  the 
early  Christians  in  pagan  lands  came  from 
emperors,  governors,  priests,  and  prophets, 
who  feared  that  the  new  doctrine  would  un- 
dermine their  authority:  the  people  every- 
where welcomed  the  advent  of  Christianity. 
This  is  not  that  they  naturally  inclined  to 
love  its  doctrines  or  obey  its  precepts,  but 
that  they  always,  unless  in  positions  of  ad- 
vantage supposed  to  be  endangered  by  inno- 
vation, revered  and  loved  every  personal 
exemplification  of  the  gentle  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity. They  loved  the  Christian,  even  when 
they  did  not  at  once  cordially  embrace  his 
faith  and  partake  of  his  hope. 

The  aversion  to  the  pure  requirements  of 
Christian  truth  may  still  be  influential  and 


MORE    THAN    CHRISTIAN    DOCTRINE.  263 


visible  in  the  natural  man,  but  lie  lias  no 
such  aversion  to  the  Christians  who  obey 
these  requirements  and  display  them  in  their 
lives.  It  is  even  true  that  the  very  men  who 
read  the  Bible  are  forcibly  struck  with  the 
beauty  of  its  precepts,  and  feel  themselves 
strongly  attracted  to  the  Author  of  our  present 
dispensation;  and  this  is  the  strong  inducement 
to  the  present  extensive  distribution  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  But  where  one  man  would  be 
thus  favourably  influenced  by  the  mere  read- 
ing of  the  word,  a  thousand  would  behold 
with  admiration  and  sincere  regard  any  fair 
exemplification  of  the  precepts  of  the  Saviour. 
It  is  a  matter  worthy  of  special  remark  that 
the  exercise  of  charity,  of  brotherly  love,  of 
humanity,  embracing  those  duties  which  Chris- 
tians most  overlook  and  neglect,  are  the  very 
duties  in  which  the  men  of  the  world  are  most 
willing  to  engage  and  carry  on  independently 
or  in  company  with  Christians.  It  is  further 
to  be  noted  that  very  many  of  the  benevolent 
and  Christian  enterprises  of  the  day  are  in 


264       KINDNESS   THE   DOMAIN   OF   RELIGION. 


^ 


fact  more  indebted  to  the  liberality  of  men 
not  professing  to  be  Christians,  than  to  those 
who  are.  It  is  upon  this  very  ground,  in  which 
Christians  are  most  deficient,  that  men  of  the 
world  are  most  efficient — most  inclined  to  act. 
This  is  the  field  in  which  the  least  repulsion 
is  to  be  expected,  and  in  which  the  most 
complete  success  would  immediately  crown 
any  rightly-directed  Christian  effort. 

It  is  because  this  effort  is  not  made,  because 
this  field,  which,  even  in  the  estimation  of  the 
men  of  the  world,  belongs  to  the  domain  of 
Christianity,  is  not  fully  and  strongly  occu- 
pied by  Christians,  that  many,  very  many 
disbelieve  in  its  power  over  the  human  heart 
and  mind,  whilst  they  a.dmit  its  abstract  pu- 
rity. They  regard  that,  as  a  neglected  philo- 
sophy— as  the  Utopia  of  an  amiable  philan- 
thropist, which  assumes  to  be  an  active  religious 
principle — a  divine  power.  It  is  only  when 
Christianity  is  in  action,  when  the  example 
of  its  Author  is  followed  even  at  the  distance 
from  divinity  to  humanity,  that  its  beauties 


THE    MORALISTS    OF    THIS   WORLD.  265 


and  graces  reveal  all  their  attractions.  So^  in 
like  manner,  when  a  semblance  of  Christianity 
is  set  up  in  which  the  chief  beauties  and 
graces  are  omitted,  the  men  of  the  world  turn 
away  from  the  counterfeit,  with  contempt  and 
hatred  added  to  natural  aversion. 

It  is  this  failure  on  the  part  of  Christians 
to  commend  their  Master's  pure  and  benign 
cause  by  lives  of  meekness  and  charity  that 
turns  away  so  manj^-  of  the  strict  moralists  of 
this  world,  w]io?i^6li^g  ^^^^  their  own  conduct,  urf 
even  in  what  they  deem  a  Christian  aspect,  is 
so  much  superior  to  that  of  professed  Chris- 
tians, that  they  cannot  reverence  a  religion 
which  bears  no  better  fruits  than  those  they 
behold.  Ah,  how  should  such  considerations 
arrest  the  attention  of  all  followers  of  Christ ! 
Here  is  an  aspect  of  duty  which  fixes  heavy 
responsibilities  upon  every  individual  of  them ; 
not  upon  the  clergy  alone,  but  upon  the  whole 
body  of  Christians.  This  is  a  field  of  labour 
in  which  the  efibrts  of  the  laity  may  be  more 

potent   than   all  the  labours  of  the  clergy. 

23 


266  INFIDELITY    AND 


Here  lies  the  path  to  an  effectual  refutation 
of  by  far  the  largest  portion  of  infidel  objec- 
tions. When  these  responsibilities  are  fairly 
met,  the  clergy  will  no  longer  fulfil  the  heavy 
task  of  preaching  that  gospel  which  none 
obey — of  enforcing  those  jirecepts  which  find 
no  verification. 

It  is  a  fact  worthy  of  note  and  careful  re- 
flection, though  we  cannot  enter  into  any  full 
analysis  of  it  at  present,  that  many  of  the 
most  zealous  friends  of  humanity,  in  some 
cases  only  professed  friends,  have  either  been 
infidels  or  have  shown  a  strong  bias  in  that 
direction.  So  far  as  this  zeal  for  the  interests 
of  humanity  can  have  been  real,  or  can  be 
supposed  to  have  been  real,  it  presents  a  case 
of  moral  and  intellectual  obUquity  of  the 
most  extraordinary  kind.  The  reasons  may 
be  worked  out  at  length  by  those  who  have 
leisure  and  ability  for  the  task.  We  only 
point  to  the  fact.  We  refer  not  to  those  who 
are  merely  seeking  political  reforms,  but  to 
those  who  apparently  desire  to  go  deeper  and 


HUMANITY.  267 


effect   more   radical  changes   for  the   better' 


O' 


in    human    condition.       To    ero    no    farther 


b' 


back  than  Paine,  a  long  list  of  men  might 
be  formed  whose  zeal  for  humanity  made 
them  infidels,  or  whose  infidelity  begot  their 
zeal  for  human  welfare.  In  general,  these 
men  were  not  ignorant  of,  and  could  not  be 
blind  to,  the  claims  of  Christianity,  upon  a 
survey  of  all  history  since  its  advent,  to  being 
considered  the  greatest  benefactor  of  mankind 
the  world  has  ever  known.  But  they  were 
not  men  who  busied  themselves  with  past 
claims  or  merits  :  they  were  looking  to 
something  to  be  accomplished  which  was  be- 
fore them.  They  find  Christians  arrayed  I 
against  their  plans,  and  they  immediately  I 
array  themselves  against  Christianity.  Thef 
Christians  may  be  right,  and  the  reformers 
may  be  wrong,  or  there  may  be  right  and 
wa^ong  on  both  sides,  but  what  is  chiefly  to  be 
lamented  is  that  Christians  suffer  these  con- 
troversies to  assume  a  shape  and  aspect  which 
have  the  appearance  of  infidelity  being  on  the 


268       OUR  GOOD  EVIL  SPOKEN  OF. 


I  side  of  human  well-being,  while  Christianity 
stands  up  in  defence  of  ancient  abuses,  oppres- 
sive legislation,  and  social  enormities.  Whose 
fault  is  it  that  the  good  of  Christianity  is  thus 
brought  into  a  position  to  be  "  evil  spoken 
J  of?"  ^  Is  it  that  Christianity  has  so  compli- 
cated her  interests  with  those  of  governments, 
with  the  course  of  legislation,  with  the  exist- 
ing social  evils,  that  Christians  fear  to  have 
any  of  these  touched  lest  the  fabric  of  their 
respective  churches  may  suffer  ?  _4ls  it  so,  that 
tliose  who  set  themselves  to  examine  existing 
institutions  and  the  evils  which  afflict  huma- 
nity are  brought  to  the  conclusion  that  Christi- 
anity is  one  of  the  chief  barriers  to  progress 
in  the  path  of  charity  and  social  well-being? 
Can  Christianity  be  so  far  put  in  the  wrong 
as  to  appear  even  in  the  slightest  degree 
adverse  to  any  policy  which  promises  the  least 
'  addition  to  the  comforts,  the  happiness  or  best 
interests  of  the  great  masses  of  men  ? 

Let  no  one  wince  if  the  probe  has  to  be 
applied  in  finding  a  reply  to  these  queries, 


SYMPATHIES    OF    THE   HIGHER    CLASSES.       269 


and  if  it  wounds  the  complacency  of  those 
Christians  who  are  so  perfectly  satisfied  with 
things  and  institutions  as  they  are  that  they 
tremble  at  any  suggestions  of  change.  It  is 
very  easy  for  those  who  are  sitting  in  abun- 
dance, in  the  enjoyment  of  competent  salaries, 
a  good  inheritance,  a  well-established  business, 
or  enjoying  the  sure  patronage  of  powerful  or 
rich  friends,  or  in  possession  of  other  adven- 
titious or  well-earned  advantages,  to  be  very 
much  opposed  to  all  propositions  of  reform 
which  do  not  meet  their  views  or  comport 
with  their  interests.  /Ind  as  it  is  not  proba- 
ble that  any  plan  can  be  devised  to  secure 
the  assent  of  all,  common  sympathy  unites 
the  respectable  classes  in  opposition  to  every 
scheme  which  implies  much  change.  They 
feel  easy  and  comfortable,  and,  having  the 
power  in  their  hands,  they  cannot  perceive 
why  they  should  jeopardize  their  position  by 
assenting  to  reforms  which,  after  all,  may  not 
fulfil    their   design.     These    sentiments    and 


'-in' 

23* 


270    TWO-THIRDS    FALL    IX   THE    RACE    OF    LIFE. 


this  state  of  feeling,  is  in  perfect  accordance 
with  the  natural  dictates  of  the  human  heart. 
But  they  are  certainly  wide  as  the  poles 
from  the  genuine  spirit  of  Christianity,  which 
should  not  be  used  as  a  cloak  for  such  selfish- 
ness. ^  It  seems  to  be  the  order  of  Providence 
that,  in  the  path  of  life,  at  least  two-thirds  of 
the  human  race  Ml  behind,  and  become  more 
or  less  dependent  on  the  other  third,  upon 
whom  greater  industry  or  strength,  or  bodily 
vigour,  or  special  talents,  or  accidental  ad- 
vantages have  conferred  power,  or  wealth,  or 
influence,  which  enables  them  not  merely  to 
live  upon  the  labour  of  their  less  fortunate 
brethren,  but  at  will  to  prey  upon  them,  and 
reduce  them  to  absolute  or  virtual  servitude. 
Now,  it  so  happens,  in  Christendom,  that  this 
happy  third,  in  Catholic  countries,  consists  of 
the  priesthood,  and  the  nobles,  public  officers, 
gentry,  and  men  of  wealth,  who  find  many 
reasons  for  sustaining  their  exclusive  posi- 
tion ;  in  Protestant  countries,  the  deposit  of 
power  and  influence  is  in  equivalent  hands. 


HIGHER   AND    LOWER   RANGES   OF   SOCIETY.    271 


r  — 

Thus  Christianity  sits  enthroned  on  high 
places,  while  poverty  is  struggling  below. 
Christians  find  matters  very  well  arranged 
for  them;  they  are  reaping  the  fruits  of  so- 
briety, economy,  industry,  and  honesty,  while 
the  multitudes  below  are  suffering  the  conse- 
quences of  idleness,  ignorance,  vagrancy,  in- 
temperance, dishonesty,  and  crime.  The  com- 
placency of  the  upper  class  is  complete,  but 
dansrerous.  Between  these  vast  classes  of 
the  higher  and  lower  range  is  a  multitude 
that  skirt  the  boundaries  of  both,  and  are  no 
indifferent  spectators  of  what  passes  above 
and  below  them.  A  portion  of  them  may, 
with  all  the  energies  of  selfishness,  be  work- 
ing their  way  upwards ;  but  many,  of  medium 
capacities,  are  constitutionally  content  with  a 
quiet  life  and  frugal  living  ;  and  these  become 
special  observers  of  the  effects  of  disease, 
hunger,  nakedness,  ignorance,  crime,  and  the 
indescribable  suffering  and  anguish  which  are 
below,  and  of  the  cool  indifference,  the  hard- 
ness of  heart,  the  exclusiveness  which  dictates 


272  CERTAIN    QUESTIONS   AVOIDED. 


relief  to  a  few  of  some  particular  cliurchj  or 
some  who  have  fallen  from  higher  fortunes, 
but  which  repudiates  the  kindredship  of  the 
human  family :  they  become  indignant  ob- 
servers of  the  barriers  and  obstacles,  legal, 
political,  religious,  and  moral,  which  are  care- 
fully and  industriously  raised,  not  only 
against  any  actual  measures  of  relief  for  these 
suffermg  millions,  but  even  against  any  fair 
and  candid,  much  less  Christian  discussion  of 
the  questions  involved  in  any  attempt  to  ele- 
vate and  ^permanently  improve  their  condi- 
tion. Does  all  this  beget  in  them  no  abhor- 
rence of  power,  no  infidelity,  no  tendency  to 
democracy  and  other  levelling  doctrines  ? 
Let  the  literature  of  the  past  century  speak 
in  reply.  Let  the  progress  of  republicanism 
in  Europe  and  America  answer — let  chartism, 
and  above  all  socialism,  respond.  Li  chart- 
ism, in  democracy,  in  socialism,  there  is  not 

necessarily  any  ingredient  of  infidelity ;  and 
yet  in  fact,  we  find  them  to  a  large  extent 

blended    and    travelling    together,    because 


THE  PATRONS  OF  EVERY  GOOD  CAUSE.   278 


Christians^  as  such,  and  those  who  pretend  to 
be  such,  have,  without  just  discrimination, 
opposed  every  movement  of  reform,  as  dan- 
gerous to  society.  There  is  then  no  avoiding 
the  conclusion  which  should  be  u|)permost  in 
the  minds  of  all, — that  Christians  should  pro- 
mote every  reform  which  has  human  welfare 
for  its  object,  provided  it  can  furnish  good 
assurance  of  its  claims,  and  that  it  is  to  be 
carried  out  in  the  true  spirit  of  Christianityj 
They  should  not  only  be  ^^rompt  to  perform 
all  that  it  is  wise  to  do,  but  ready  to  devise 
all  that  their  minds  can  compass  for  that  end, 
and  be  ready  to  hear  all  that  can  be  sug- 
gested. No  discussion  should  be  more  wel- 
come to  a  Christian's  ear,  than  that  which 
concerns  the  true  interests  of  men,  even  for 
this  world ;  because,  when  Christians  find  the 
means  of  promoting  the  temporal  interests  of 
men,  they  have  found  a  door  open  to  secure 
their  interests  for  eternitv.  Christians  should,  i^ 
therefore,  be  the  known  patrons  of  every 
measure  involving  the  progress  of  humanity  : 


274    FAITH  AND  DUTY  TO  BE  BALANCED. 


that  their  patronage  may  be  effectual,  they 
must  keep  their  minds  and  their  duties 
balanced,  not  allowing  any  one  measure 
to  swallow  up  all  others  and  all  other 
considerations.  There  is  but  one  rule  for 
doing  this,  and  but  one  Being  who  can 
aid  us  in  applying  it :  we  must  love  the 
emperor  and  serf  alike,  the  master  and 
slave,  the  captor  and  his  prisoner,  the  man 
in  the  palace  and  the  man  in  the  hovel, 
the  man  that  is  a  friend  and  the  man 
that  is  a  foe  :  the  rule  is  to  love  all  these 
as  we  love  ourselves;  and  if  we  have  not 
strength  to  keep  this  precept,  we  must  look 
for  aid  to  Him  who  gave  this  "  new  com- 
mandment." 

But  we  find  many  besides  those  in  this 
middle  range  of  life  who  become  deeply 
grieved  at  the  apparent  indifference  of  Chris- 
tians to  the  cause  of  humanity  :  these 
exceptions  exist  both  in  the  higher  and 
lower  ranks :  they  exist  among  the  poor, 
mingled  with  bitterness,  if  not  hatred  -,  and 


DO   NOT   DESPISE    REPROOF.  275 


among   tlie   rich^   mingled   with    scorn    and 
contempt.* 

It  is  no  sign  of  wisdom,  or  of  meekness,  or 
of  charity,  that  Christians  despise  and  dis- 
regard these  opinions  and  sentiments,  how- 

*  Take  the  case  of  Stephen  Girard.  We  hear  there  is  a  feel- 
ing of  resentment  among  many  of  the  clergy  of  Pennsylvania, 
coupled  with  branding  him  always  as  an  infidel,  for  his  exclu- 
sion of  their  order  from  his  college  of  orphans.  We  know 
nothing  of  Mr.  Girard's  reasons  beyond  what  he  says,  nor  of 
his  religious  sentiments,  but  on  the  face  of  the  transaction  there 
is  every  reason  why  the  clergy  should  bow  in  anguish  before 
an  event  which  speaks  so  loud  a  reproach  to  their  order.  That 
a  man  who  could  conceive  so  vast  a  project  of  charity  towards 
children,  the  most  favoured  class  under  the  dispensation  of 
mercy ;  that  one,  who  could  so  approximate  the  spirit  of  the 
apostle's  declaration, — "  Pure  religion  and  undefiled  before 
God  and  the  Father  is  this,  to  visit  the  fatherless  and  the 
widows  in  their  affliction,"  (James  i.  27 ;)  that  one  who  knew 
the  world  so  well,  and  had  lived  in  it  so  long,  and  desired  that 
the  orphans  taken  in  charge  should  be  taught  ^Hhe  purest  prin- 
ciples of  morality,  so  that,  on  their  entrance  into  active  life,  they 
may,  from  inclination  and  habit,  evince  henevolence  toioards  their 
felloiv-creatures,  and  a  love  of  truth,  sobriety,  and  industry,^'' — 
should  not  be  willing  to  commit  this  teaching  to  the  clergy,  or 
to  their  supervision,  or  even  to  their  occasional  inspection, 
should  rather  justify  strong  self-distrust  and  apprehension  than 
a  tone  of  reproach  or  condemnation. 

It  may  serve  to  extenuate  this  much  mooted  offence  of  Mr. 
Girard  against  religion,  to  state  that  the  management  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  the  London  Sunday-school 
Union,  and  our  own  Sunday-school  Union  is  committed  exclu- 
sively to  laymen. 


276        COMPLACENCY   NO    CLOAK    FOR    ERROR. 


r 


ever  mistaken,  and  attempt  to  wrap  them- 
selves complacently  in  robes  of  orthodoxy 
and  self-rigliteousness,  wondering  at  such 
ignorance  and  presumption.  This  is  an  error 
even  more  fatal  than  that  at  which  it  is  di- 
rected. It  is  cause  of  profound  mortification 
and  humility  in  Christians,  that  such  senti- 
ments prevail  in  certain  quarters.  There  is 
no  escaping  this  conclusion  by  contempt  or 
disregard,  any  more  than  the  ostrich  escapes 
its  pursuers  by  thrusting  its  head  in  the  sand ; 
nor  will  it  meet  the  case  to  say  "that  the 
heart  of  man  is  deceitful  above  all  things  and 
desperately  wicked," — that  "enmity  against 
God"  is  the  explanation  of  this  enmity  to  his 
servants.  When  the  day  of  judgment  comes, 
and  all  hearts  are  laid  open,  it  will  be  deter- 
mined how  far  it  is  safe  or  proper  for  one  set 
of  men  to  assume  that  their  righteousness 
was  the  cause  of  offence  in  other  men. 

Religion  and  its  institutions,  whether  from 
compactness  or  strength  of  organization  or 
from  a  command  of  public  opinion,  constitute 


THOSE   WHO    STIFLE   INQUIRY.  277 


a  very  effective  power,  which  is  wielded  by 
human  hands  under  all  the  influences  to 
which  human  nature  is  subject.  It  is  inevi- 
table, therefore,  that  it  must  be  abused,  and 
the  more  especially  because  no  human  posses- 
sion is  more  apt  to  be  abused  than  power, 
however  derived.  This  power  is  abused  both  ^^ 
positively  and  negatively, — by  w^hat  it  does, 
and  what  it  prohibits  being  done  : — it  is  effi- 
cient of  evil  and  repressive  of  good.  Those 
enjoying  such  control  have  always  been  in- 
clined, not  only  to  stifle  inquiry  into  abuses 
which  might  expose  themselves,  but  also  all 
free  expression  of  ojDinion  which  might,  in 
any  way,  bring  the  validity  of  their  dogmas 
in  question.  It  was  easier  for  them  to  sit 
tranquil  in  their  places  and  hold  men  to  one 
track  of  thought,  than  to  be  kept  constantly 
on  the  alert,  to  examine,  understand,  and  try 
the  soundness  of  positions  as  fast  as  they 
might  be  advanced.  They  deemed  that,  by  */ 
having  grasped  this  power,  they  had  earned  a 

right  to  the  quiet  enjoyment  of  its  exercise, 

24 


278  FEAR    OF    THE    TRUTH. 


although  that  exercise  affected  ten  times 
their  number  of  people,  vitally  interested 
to  question  the  validity  of  the  rights  claimed, 
and  more  especially  interested  to  inquire  if 
neither  religion,  nor  humanity,  nor  politics, 
nor  political  economy  had  any  thing  better 
in  store  for  them.^  )  It  is  therefore  in  perfect 
accordance  with  human  nature  that  we  find 
this  power  for  rei^ression  of  truth  and  all 
disturbing  investigations  freel}^  exercised,  not 
only  in  cases  where  the  truth  or  the  subject 
of  inquiry  plainly  points  to  defects  of  exist- 
ing systems,  or  suggests  remedies,  but  even 
from  tyranny  or  caprice,  in  cases  where  no 
possible  danger  to  the  powers  that  be  is  in- 
volved. Thus  the  Catholic  oj)position  to  the^ 
astronomical  discoveries  of  the  middle  ages ; 
thus  the  modern  opposition  to  the  conclusions 
of  geology,  and  thus  the  almost  universal 
ojDposition  among  rigid  churchmen  and  the 
severely  orthodox  to  all  free  inquiries  into 
human  condition,  the  rights  and  wrongs  of 
the  poor,  and  into  the  great  problem  of  proper 


DOMAIN   OF    FREE   INQUIRY.  2T9 


security  for  human  labour.  This  is  pro- 
daimed,  by  some  from  whom  better  things 
might  be  expected,  to  be  ground  which  free 
inquiry  should  not  touch ;  as  within  the  do- 
main of  religion,  and  therefore  not  to  be 
touched  by  profane  hands.  And  yet  these 
same  persons  do  not  so  much  as  touch  these 
subjects  with  their  little  fingers.  They  do 
not  enter  in  themselves,  and  they  would 
fain  prevent  others  also  from  entering.  The  ^ 
odium  of  this  tyranny  falls  not  merely  upon 
the  guilty,  but  upon  that  Christianity  they 
unworthily  represent. 

When  will  it  be  understood  and  fairly  ad- 
mitted, that  however  men  may  have  cause 
to  fear  the  truth,  and  however  they  may  be 
interested  to  sustain  abusive  doctrines  and 
institutions,  Christianity  has  nothing  to  fear  i/ 
from  the  truth,  and  much  less  cause  to  fear 
open  enemies  than  pretended  or  mistaken 
friends?  When  will  it  be  felt  and  understood, 
that  whatever  virtue  there  may  be  in  con- 
servatism, whatever   caution   should  be  ob- 


280  DOMAIN    OF    FREE    INQUIRY. 


served  in  reforms,  whatever  barriers  may  be 
raised  against  the  progress  of  truth  or  science, 
Christianity  cannot  be  enlisted  against  hu- 
manity, nor  against  any  cause  that  promotes 
social  well-being  :  that  whilst  millions  upon 
millions  of  human  beings  in  Christendom, 
under  the  very  shadow  of  Christianity,  are 
suffering  the  extremities  of  want,  of  igno- 
rance, degradation,  crime,  and  oppression, 
>  Christians  cannot,  in  the  slightest  accord- 
ance with  their  profession,  oppose  all  search- 
ing inquiries  into  these  miseries  and  all  active 
and  effectual  methods  of  relief?  It  is  un- 
christian to  say  that  nothing  can  be  done  for 
these  millions  :  it  is  wicked  to  deny  that  very 
much  can  be  done  :  it  is  treason  to  the  cause  ^ 
of  Christ  if  infidelity  is  permitted  to  take 
precedence  in  the  career  of  social  and  moral 
reformation.  Let  Christian  kindness  be  so 
prompt  and  conspicuous  in  whatever  con- 
cerns human  amelioration,  that  whilst  every 
mind  is  encouraged  to  put  forth  all  its  powers 
in  that  direction,  every  scheme  of  improve- 


DOMAIN    OF   FREE    INQUIRY.  281 


ment  shall  be  tinged,  if  not  imbued,  with 
heavenly  wisdom,  and  every  plan  shall  in- 
stinctively seek  the  approval  of  Christian 
Charity  and  the  co-operation  of  Christian, 
enterprise.  Let  the  science  of  social  well- 
being — the  art  of  doing  good — be  exalted  to  its 
true  elevation,  of  making  all  other  sciences 
and  arts  subordinate,  and  contributory  to  its 
perfection  and  efficiency,  and  then  it  shall  be 
found  that  every  good  cause  will  stand  in  its 
true  place  and  the  harmony  of  the  whole 
will  constitute  a  soil  on  which  Christianity 
shall  rea]3  her  greatest  triumphs  in  this  world. 


24* 


NOTES. 


FEW  WORKS  ON  CHARITY  IN  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

We  have  not  in  the  English  language  any  elaborate  work  on  Chris- 
tian Charity.      A  great  many  beautiful  things  have  been  said  and 
written  on  this  subject,  which  it  would  be  at  once  profitable  and 
pleasant  to  collect  and  compare.     How  many  charity  sermons  have 
been  preached  in  English  since  the  Reformation  !    How  many  essays, 
how  many  touching  passages,  poetical  and  prosaic,  might  be  brought 
together  by  a  diligent  search !     How  far  all  these  might  go  to  vindi- 
cate Protestantism  in  Great  Britain  and  America  from  the  reproach  of 
having  produced  no  great  work  on  Charity  we   cannot  conjecture. 
Whether  these  choice  extracts  would  be  found  most  abundant  in  sacred 
or  profane  literature  we  cannot  tell.     We  trust  the  work  will  be  done 
by  some  thoroughly  industrious  explorer,  whom  nothing  worthy  of  no- 
tice shall  escape.    If  the  collection  shall  prove  too  extensive  for  publi- 
cation, let  us  at  least  have  a  descriptive  catalogue,  indicating  the  loca- 
lities and  the  nature  of  these  hidden  treasures.     When  this  task  is  to 
be  performed,  we  trust  that  our  religious  literature  will  be  especially  ex- 
amined ;  that  every  system  of  theology,  every  guide  to  piety,  every 
book  of  daily  meditations,  every  work  descriptive  of  the  divine  life, 
every  volume  that  professes  to  set  forth  Christianity  in  general,  and 
every  one  that  professes  to  point  out  the  paths  of  a  Christian  life  in 
particular,  shaU  be  diligently  searched,  to  discover  what  any  and  all 
may  yield  on  the  great  subject  of  Christian  Charity.     Enough  may  be 
found  perhaps  to  encourage  some  competent  person  to  wipe  away  our 
reproach,  and  furnish  in  our  language  a  great  and  adequate  work  on 
Christian  Charity— on  the  leading  instructions  of  Christ,  on  the  more 
prominent  acts  of  Christ's  life,  on  the  duties  that  Christian  ministers 
owe  to  the  ignorant  poor,  and  on  the  obligations  of  Christian  people  to 
all  that  require  their  aid,  sympathy,  and  protection. 

Our  inquiries  have  furnished  us  in  English  religious  literature  with 
only  one  work  on  the  subject  of  Christian  Charity,  which,  though  far 
from  being  comprehensive  or  thorough,  is  nevertheless  a  very  good 

283 


284  NOTES. 


book.  The  author  is  one  who  was  capable  of  doing  better  justice  to 
this  vital  topic,  but  unfortunately,  it  did  not  come  within  the  scope  of 
his  undertaking  to  embrace  its  whole  range.  He  gives  frequent  proofs 
in  its  pages  of  having  felt  the  importance  and  pressure  of  the  subject. 
We  trust  he  may  yet  return  to  it  and  furnish  a  systematic  treatise, 
covering  the  whole  ground  of  love  to  God  and  love  to  man.  We  refer 
to  "Christian  Chahity  Explained,  &c.,  in  an  Exposition  of  the 
Thirteenth  Chapter  of  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,"  by  John 
Angell  James. 

The  mode  of  treatment  suggested  by  the  weekly  duty  of  furnishing  a 
lecture  was  unfavourable  to  system  and  shut  out  elementary  and  com- 
prehensive views,  whilst  perhaps  it  gave  earnestness  and  pungency  to 
his  exhortations.  We  oifer  a  few  extracts,  which,  whilst  they  confirm 
many  of  our  author's  positions,  show  that  the  writer  fell  short  of  a  full 
conception  of  the  subject. 

"Our  Lord  has  resolved  all  piety  and  all  morality  into  Love.  This  shows  us 
at  once  that  religion  has  its  seat  in  the  heart,  and  is  of  a  free,  and  noble,  and 
generous  nature.  From  a  persuasion  that  this  view  of  it  is  too  rarely  taken, 
too  little  understood,  and  too  imperfectly  felt,  I  was  induced  to  enter  upon  the 
exposition  of  Paul's  most  interesting  description  of  Christian  Charity." 

"  It  is  impossible  to  read  this  chapter  without  being  convinced  that  the  religion 
of  Jesus  Christ  has  excellences  and  beauties  in  its  nature,  which,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  depravity  of  our  hearts,  have  been  yet  but  very  imperfectly  de- 
veloped to  the  world.  Unfortunately  for  the  reputation  of  Christianity,  it  has 
been  generally  looked  at,  not  as  it  appears,  in  mild  but  unclouded  effulgence, 
in  its  own  hemisphere,  the  Bible,  but  as  it  is  feebly  and  dimly  reflected  from 
the  dull  surface  of  what  is  called  the  Christian  world." 

"Were  this  rule  of  conduct  accurately  and  universally  conformed  to  by  all 
•who  bear  the  name  of  Christ,  what  a  scene  would  the  church  of  God  present ! 
how  striking  would  it  appear,  when  thus  exhibited  as  the  dwelling-place  of 
love,  amidst  a  region  of  selfishness  and  cruelty, — a  verdant  oasis  in  this  desert 
world." 

"  Religion,  in  the  present  daj'  especially,  is  too  exclusively  a  puhlic  business — a 
thing  of  times  and  places — an  observance  of  forms,  and  an  enjoyment  of  public 
means :  its  efforts  are  confined  to  the  hearing  of  sermons,  and  a  voluptuous 
enjoyment  of  devotional  seasons." 

"  The  religion  of  the  age  is  all  bustle,  and  hurry,  and  flutter;  the  consequence 
is,  that  many  really  know  not  what  manner  of  spirit  they  are  of." 

"The  mode  of  doing  business,  also,  in  the  present  day,  is  often  shockingly  at 
variance  with  the  "whatsoever  things  are  true,  and  just,  and  honest."  It  has 
been  said  by  some,  that  trade  is  a  lie  from  beginning  to  end.  This  is  an  ex- 
travagant expression,  but  it  is  partially  true ;  so  that  what  with  the  bad  prac- 
tices which  custom  too  easily  reconciles  to  the  conscience  of  even  pious  people, 


NOTES.  285 


and  what  with  the  time  which  is  usually  employed,  even  where  there  is  no  de- 
parture from  the  strictest  integrity, — personal  religion  is  in  imminent  peril." 

"  Miracles  were  but  the  credentials  of  Christianity,  but  Charity  is  its  essence ; 
miracles  but  its  witnesses,  which,  having  ushered  it  into  the  world,  and  borne 
their  testimony,  retired  for  ever ; — but  Charity  is  its  very  soul,  which,  when  dis- 
encumbered of  all  that  is  earthly,  shall  ascend  to  its  native  seat — the  paradise 
and  the  presence  of  the  eternal  God." 

"This  is  love,  blended  with  all  our  living  habits,  diffused  through  all  our  con- 
duct, forming  our  character,  breathing  in  our  desires,  speaking  in  our  words, 
beaming  in  our  eyes ;  in  short,  a  living  part  of  our  living  selves.  And  this,  be 
it  remembered,  is  religion — practical  religion." 

After  quoting  a  number  of  the  leading  passages  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment on  the  subject  of  Charity,  the  author  bursts  forth  as  follows  : — 

"  What  encomiums  are  these !  what  striking  proofs  of  the  supreme  importance 
of  the  disposition  now  under  consideration !  Who  has  not  been  guilty  of  some 
neglect  of  it?  Who  has  not  had  his  attention  drawn  too  much  from  it?  Who 
can  read  these  passages  of  Holy  Writ,  and  not  feel  convinced  that  not  only 
mankind  in  general,  but  the  professors  of  spiritual  religion  also,  have  too  much 
mistaken  the  nature  of  true  piety  ?  What  are  clear  and  orthodox  views — what 
are  strong  feelings — what  is  our  faith — what  our  enjoyment — what  our  free- 
dom from  gross  immorality, — without  this  spirit  of  pure  and  universal  be- 
nevolence ?" 

"  Some  conclude,  that  because  ffiey  are  regular  in  their  attendance  upon  the  ser- 
vices of  religion  they  are  true  Christians;  they  go  punctually  to  church  or  to 
meeting — they  receive  the  Lord's  supper — they  frequent  the  meetings  for  social 
prayer — they,  perhaps,  repeat  prayers  in  secret,  and  read  the  Scriptures.  All 
this  is  well,  if  it  be  done  with  right  views,  and  in  connection  with  right  disposi- 
tions :  but  it  is  the  whole  of  their  religion ;  a  mere  abstraction  of  devotional 
exercise ;  a  thing  separate  and  apart  from  the  heart,  and  temper,  and  conduct ; 
a  business  of  the  closet,  and  of  the  sanctuary ;  a  sort  of  composition  paid  to 
the  Almighty,  to  be  released  from  all  the  other  demands  of  Scripture,  and  ob- 
ligations of  piety ;  an  expression  of  their  willingness  to  be  devout  in  the  church, 
and  on  the  Sabbath,  provided  they  may  be  as  earthly-minded,  as  selfish,  as  ma- 
licious, and  as  unkind  as  they  please,  in  all  places  and  all  times  besides.  ITiis 
is  not  religion." 

"  Doctrine  is  every  thing ;  clear  views  of  the  gospel  are  the  great  desideratum  : 
and  in  their  zeal  for  these  things,  they  suppose  they  can  ngver  say  things  extrava- 
gant enough,  nor  absurd  enough,  nor  angry  enough,  against  good  works,  practi- 
cal religion,  or  Christian  temper.  Pufifed  up  with  pride,  selfish,  unkind,  irri- 
table, censorious,  malicious, — they  manifest  a  total  want  of  that  humility  and 
kindness  which  are  the  prominent  features  of  true  Christianity.  Let  it  be  known 
however,  that  clear  views,  even  where  they  have  no  resemblance  to  the  mon- 
strous caricatures  and  frightful  deformities  of  modern  Antinomianism,  are  of 
themselves  no  evidence  of  religion,  any  more  than  right  theoretical  notions 
of  the  constitution  are  the  proofs  of  loyalty ;  and  as  a  man  with  these  notions 


286  NOTES. 


in  his  mind  may  be  a  traitor  in  his  heart,  so  may  a  professor  of  religion  be  an 
enemy  to  God  in  his  soul,  with  an  eyangelical  creed  upon  his  tongue.  Many 
profess  to  be  very  fond  of  the  lamp  of  truth,  grasp  it  firmly  in  their  hands, 
admire  its  flame,  pity  or  blame  those  who  are  following  the  delusive  and  me. 
teoric  fires  of  error ;  but  after  all,  make  no  other  use  of  it  than  to  illuminate 
the  path  that  leads  them  to  perdition ;  their  religion  begins  and  ends  in  adopt-  ' 
ing  a  form  of  sound  words  for  their  creed,  approving  an  evangelical  ministry, 
admiring  the  popular  champions  of  the  truth,  and  joining  in  the  reproba- 
tion of  fundamental  error.  As  to  any  spirituality  of  mind,  any  heavenliness 
of  affection,  any  Christian  love, — in  short,  as  to  any  of  the  natural  tendency, 
the  appropriate  energy,  the  vital,  elevating  influence,  of  those  very  doctrines 
to  which  they  profess  to  be  attached — the^  are  as  destitute  as  the  veriest  world- 
ling; and  like  him,  are  perhaps  selfish,  revengeful,  implacable,  and  unkind. 
This  is  a  religion  but  too  common  in  the  present  day,  when  evangelical  senti- 
ments are  becoming  increasingly  popular;  a  religion  but  too  common  in  our 
churches :  a  religion,  cold,  heartless,  and  uninfluential ;  a  sort  of  lunar  light, 
which  reflects  the  beams  of  the  sun,  but  not  his  warmth." 

"  It  is  to  be  feared  that  many,  in  the  present  day,  satisfy  themselves  that  they 
are  Christians,  because  of  their  zeal  in  the  cause  of  religion.  Happily  for  the 
church  of  God,  happily  for  the  world  at  large,  there  is  now  a  great  and  general 
eagerness  for  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  and  piety.  Throwing  off  the  torpor 
of  ages,  the  friends  of  Christ  are  labouring  to  extend  his  kingdom  in  every  di- 
rection. Almost  every  possible  object  of  Christian  philanthropy  is  seized  upon; 
societies  are  organized ;  means  adapted  to  every  kind  of  instruments  are  em- 
ployed ;  the  whole  levy  en  masse  of  the  religious  world  is  called  out ;  and 
Christendom  presents  an  interesting  scene  of  benevolent  energy.  Such  a  state 
of  things,  however,  has  its  dangers  in  reference  to  personal  religion,  and  may 
become  an  occasion  of  delusion  to  many.  It  does  not  require  genuine  piety  to 
associate  us  with  these  movements :  from  a  natural  liberality  of  disposition,  or 
regard  to  reputation,  or  a  desire  of  influence,  or  by  the  compulsion  of  example, 
we  may  give  our  property;  for  all  these  motives  are,  no  doubt,  in  partial  ope- 
ration, when  giving  is  in  fashion.  And  as  to  personal  exertions,  how  many 
inducements  may  lead  to  this,  besides  a  sincere  and  an  ardent  love  to  Christ! 
An  inherent  fondness  for  activity,  a  love  of  display,  the  spirit  of  party,  the  per-  . 
suasion  of  friends,  may  all  operate,  and  unquestionably  do  operate  in  many 
cases,  to  produce  astonishing  effects  in  the  cause  of  religious  benevolence, 
where  there  is  a  total  absence  of  genuine  piety.  The  mind  of  man,  prone  to 
self-deception,  and  anxious  to  find  some  reasons  to  satisfy  itself  in  reference 
to  its  eternal  state,  short  of  the  true  evidence  of  a  renewed  heart,  is  too  apt  to 
derive  a  false  peace  from  the  contemplation  of  its  zeal.  In  proportion  as  the 
cause  of  the  delusion  approximates  to  the  nature  of  true  religion,  is  its  power 
to  blind  and  to  mislead  the  judgment.  If  the  mind  can  perceive  any  thing  in 
itself,  or  in  its  operations,  which  bears  the  semblance  of  godliness,  it  will  con- 
vert it  into  a  means  of  lulling  the  conscience  and  removing  anxiety.  To  many 
persons  the  fatal  opiate,  the  soul-destroying  imposture — is  their  activity  in  the 
cause  of  Christian  zeal:  none  are  moi'e  diligent  in  their  devotedness  to  the 


NOTES.  287 


duties  of  committees,  uone  are  more  constant  iu  their  attendance  upon  public 
meetings ;  others,  again,  :weary  tliemselves  in  their  weekl}'  rounds  to  collect 
the  contributions  of  the  rich  or  the  offerings  of  the  poor.  These  things,  if  they 
do  not  lead  them  coolly  to  reason  and  to  conclude  that  they  are  believers,  take 
off  their  attention  from  the  real  condition  of  their  souls,  leave  them  no  leisure 
for  reflection,  repress  the  rising  fear,  and  either  stifle  the  voice  of  conscience, 
or  enable  them  to  drown  its  remonstrances  in  the  eloquence  of  the  platform 
or  in  the  discussion  of  the  committee-room.  We  doubt  not  that  some  unworthy 
professors  of  religion,  in  the  present  age,  resort  to  public  meetings  for  the  same 
reason  as  many  a  guilty  votary  of  pleasure  does  to  public  amusements, — to 
forget  his  own  condition,  and  to  turn  away  his  ear,  for  a  short  season,  from  the 
voice  that  speaks  to  him  from  within.  Individuals  are  known  to  us  all,  who, 
amidst  the  greatest  zeal  for  various  public  institutions,  are  living  in  malice  and 
all  uncharitableness,  in  the  indulgence  of  a  predominant  selfishness  and  un- 
controlled wrath.  But  it  will  not  do.  This  is  not  piety.  Could  we  support 
the  whole  expenditure  of  the  Missionary  Society  by  our  affluence,  and  direct 
its  counsels  by  our  wisdom,  and  keep  alive  its  energy  by  our  ardour,  and  yet 
at  the  same  time  were  destitute  of  love, — we  should  perish  eternally,  amidst 
the  munificence  of  our  liberality." 

<'  Mammon,  or  Covetousness,  the  Sin  of  the  Christian  Church,  by  the  Kev. 
John  Harris,  author  of  The  Great  Teacher." 

This  was  a  vigorous  effort  of  an  English  divine  to  bring  the  sins  of 
the  English  churches  against  charity  to  their  notice.  It  was  a  prize 
essay,  and  made  a  strong  impression  on  the  public  mind.  It  par- 
takes, however,  of  the  same  defects  as  the  Avork  of  Mr.  James — it 
does  not  cover  the  whole  ground ;  because,  doubtless,  the  author  did 
not  contemplate  so  large  a  task.     A  few  extracts  will  give  its  tone : — 

"It  is  clear,  then,  that  the  entire  economy  of  salvation  Is  constructed  on  the 
principle  of  restoring  to  the  world  the  lost  spirit  of  love.  Its  advent  was  an 
era  in  the  universe."  ..."  It  was  confronting  selfishness  in  its  own  native 
region  with  a  system  of  benevolence  prepared,  as  its  avowed  antagonist,  by  the 
hand  of  God  itself." — P.  27.  "  But  has  its  object  been  realized  ?  more  than  1800 
years  have  elapsed  since  it  was  brought  into  operation — has  its  design  suc- 
ceeded. Succeeded!  Alas!  the  question  seems  a  taunt,  a  mockery.  .  .  But 
why  is  it  thus  ?  why  has  the  gospel  been  hitherto  threatened  with  the  failure  of 
a  mere  business  experiment?" — P.  28.  Speaking  of  the  success  of  the  earliest 
preachers  of  Christianity :  "  The  world  was  taken  by  surprise — never  before 
had  it  beheld  such  men — every  thing  gave  way  before  them — city  after  city, 
and  province  after  province  capitulated — yet  the  whole  secret  of  their  power 
■was  love."  ....  "Afire  had  been  kindled  in  the  earth  which  consumed  the  self- 
ishness of  men  wherever  it  came."'— P.  30.  .  .  .  "But  who  does  not  feel  that  the 
era  of  effective  benevolence  has  yet  to  commence  ?  Let  him  sketch  the  most 
simple  scheme  of  benevolence  which  the  gospal  can  appx-ove,  and  he  will  perceive 


288  NOTES. 


at  every  step  that  he  is  writing  the  condemnation  of  the  church." — 238  .  .  . 
*'  The  great  lesson  taught  by  our  Lord's  voluntary  selection  of  a  state  of  poverty 
is  yet  to  he,  fully  understood,  the  evident  application  of  many  plain  passages  of 
Scripture  to  be  made,  doctrines  startling  to  selfishness  to  become  familiar  and 
welcome,  the  word  benevolence  itself  to  be  differently  understood,  the  demon 
of  covetousness  to  be  cast  out  of  the  church,  and  the  whole  economy  of  benevo- 
lence to  be  revised." — 239. 

"  Every  nation  has  its  idol.  In  some  countries  that  idol  is  pleasure ;  in 
others,  glory  ;  in  others,  liberty :  but  the  name  of  our  idol  (in  Great  Britain)  is 
mammon."  If  it  be  true  that  each  succeeding  age  has  its  representative ;  that 
it  beholds  itself  reflected  in  some  leading  school,  and  impresses  its  image  on  the 
philosophy  of  the  day,  where  shall  we  look  for  the  image  of  the  existing  age, 
but  in  our  systems  of  political  economy."— SO  ...    .  "  Mammon  is  marching 

through  the  land  in  triumph."— 81 "To  the  same  unhallowed  spirit  of 

gain  is  to  be  traced  that  fierce  '  competition,'  of  which  the  labourer,  the  arti- 
san, the  dealer,  the  manufacturer,  and  even  the  members  of  all  the  liberal  pro- 
fessions alike  complain." "  But  when  it  rises  to  a  struggle  in  which 

neither  time  nor  strength  is  left  for  higher  pursuits,  in  which  every  new  com- 
petitor is  looked  upon  in  the  light  of  an  enemy,  in  which  every  personal  ex- 
ertion and  practicable  retrenchment  do  but  barely  leave  a  subsistence,  there 
must  be  something  essentially  wrong  in  our  ruling  spirit  or  social  constitu- 
tion."— S3.  .  .  .  "And  on  all  hands  it  is  admitted  that  the  way  in  which  busi- 
ness is  now  conducted,  involves  all  the  risk,  uncertainty,  and  unnatural  excite- 
ment of  a  game  of  chance."— S4.    Edit.  Am.  Tract  Soc.  7. 

Throe  prize  ti-acts  on  Benevolence  or  Christianity,  have  been  re- 
cently published  by  the  American  Tract  Society,  entitled  as  follows  : 

The  Divine  Law  of  Beneficence,  by  Rev.  Parsons  Cook,  Lynn. 

Zaccheus,  or  the  Scriptural  Plan  of  Benevolence,  by  Rev.  Samuel  Harris, 
Conway,  Massachusetts. 

The  Mission  of  the  Church,  or  Systematic  Beneficence,  by  Rev.  Edward  A. 
Lawrence,  Marblehead. 

These  tracts  have  great  merit,  but  are  confined  to  urging  libe- 
rality in  support  of  the  various  Christian  enterprises  of  the  day, 
and  to  the  propriety  of  systematic  appropriations  of  a  regular  portion 
of  our  incomes  to  charitable  purposes.  They  are  really  good  as  far  as 
they  go,  but  fall  short  of  developing  the  great  principle  of  love  to  God 
and  man  as  the  motive  of  all  giving  to  religious  objects.  Their 
tendency  is  more  to  make  giving  a  business,  to  foster  habits  of 
giving,  than  to  plant  that  deep  spirit  of  Christian  sympathy  which 
promptly,  spontaneously  offers  the  needful  aid,  the  sustaining  hand, 
the  cup  of  cold  water,  without  staying  to  consult  the  state  of  the  cha- 
ritable fund,  or  acting  from  the  impulse  of  a  regular  habit. 


NOTES.  289 


On  the  E>-glish  Poor-laws,  and  the  Literature  to  which  they 

have  given  origin. 

If  the  Eneclisli  Church  has  abjured  all  charge  of  the  poor,  neither 
feeding  them,  nor  lodging  them,  nor  clothing  them,  nor  visiting  them 
in  prison,  nor  administering  the  cup  of  cold  water  to  the  thirsty ;  if 
English  libraries  furnish,  neither  by  churchman,  nor  statesman,  nor  phi- 
lanthropist, any  complete  treatise  upon  Christian  Charitj',  the  language 
is  by  no  means  deficient  in  literature  of  the  poor;  we  mean,  not  poor 
literature,  nor  literature  for  the  poor,  but  literature  of  the  "Poor- 
laws."  When  the  English  civil  authorities  assumed  the  charge  of  the 
poor,  whom  the  Church  rejected,  they  undertook  a  most  dangerous 
and  diificult  task,  as  the  whole  history  of  their  poor-administration 
proves.  We  do  not  say  it  would  have  been  done  better  by  any  other 
authorities,  for  we  admit  it  was  the  most  difficult  undertaking  ever 
assumed  by  civil  authorities.  The  management  of  the  poor  in  Eng- 
land has  given  birth  to  volumes  of  legislative  enactments,  volumes  of 
judicial  decisions  on  questions  as  to  whether  a  pauper  belonged  to 
one  parish  or  another,  as  to  what  sort  of  residence  constituted  a  claim 
to  relief,  as  to  which  parish  the  burden  of  the  pauper  belonged  to,  and 
which  should  be  exempted  from  affording  any  aid ;  volumes  upon  the 
most  economical  mode  of  feeding  and  keeping  these  burdens  of  the 
parishes ;  volumes  on  the  history  of  the  poor-laws  and  their  admi- 
nistration ;  on  the  management  of  the  poor ;  on  their  employment, 
on  workhouses,  on  the  history  of  the  poor,  and  on  the  poor-rates. 
This  literature  is  unique — there  is  no  parallel  to  it  in  any  country.  It 
exhibits  a  constant  series  of  writers  sti'uggling  against  the  whole 
system,  disgusted  with  it,  or  approving  it  only  as  an  inevitable  evil 
without  remedy ;  but  all  unable  to  rise  to  the  Christian  solution  of  the 
subject.  The  Protestants  of  England  had  absolutely  lost  sight  of  the 
relations  between  Christianity  and  poverty,  and  numberless  humane 
writers  were  racking  their  brains  during  centuries  to  find  some  plan 
or  theory  in  regard  to  the  poor  which  might  meet  the  object  and  quiet 
disturbed  consciences.  But  no  solution  appeared,  and  the  evil  con- 
tinually increased.  We  may  characterize  the  actual  state  of  the  poor 
and  the  legislation  for  the  poor  during  nearly  the  whole  of  this  period 
by  the  following  extract  from  a  work  of  the  highest  authority,  "The 
History  of  the  Poor  Laws,"  by  Richard  Burn,  L.L.  D.  1  vol.  8vo. 
London,  1764. 

25 


290  NOTES. 


"The  Office  of  an  Overseer  of  the  Poor  seems  to  be  understood  to  be  this : 
To  keep  an  extraordinary  lookout  to  prerent  persons  coming  to  inhabit  [his 
parish]  without  certificates,  and  to  fly  to  the  justices  to  remore  them ;  and  if  a 
man  brings  a  certificate,  then  to  caution  all  the  inhabitants  not  to  let  him  a 
farm  of  £10  a  year,  [which  would  give  him  a  settlement  in  the  parish,]  and  to 
take  care  to  keep  him  out  of  all  parish  ofSces ;  to  warn  them,  if  they  will  hire 
servants,  to  hire  them  half-yearly,  or  by  the  month,  or  by  the  week,  or  by  the 
day,  rather  than  by  any  way  that  shall  give  them  a  settlement  [which  entitles 
them  to  relief  in  case  of  their  becoming  poor ;]  or,  if  they  do  hire  them  for  a  year, 
then  to  try  and  pick  a  quarrel  with  them  before  the  year's  end,  and  so  to  get  rid 
of  them.  To  maintain  their  poor  as  cheaply  as  possibly  they  can,  at  all  events ; 
not  to  lay  out  twopence  in  prospect  of  any  future  good,  but  only  to  serve  the 
present  necessity.  To  bargain  with  some  sturdy  person  to  take  them  by  the 
lump,  who  yet  is  not  intended  to  take  them,  but  to  hang  over  them  in  terrorem, 
if  they  shall  complain  to  the  justices  for  want  of  maintenance.  To  send  them 
cut  into  the  country  abegging ;  for  why  not  they,  as  well  as  others  ?  To  bind 
out  poor  children  apprentices,  no  matter  to  whom  or  to  what  trade,  so  that  the 
master  live  in  another  parish.  To  move  heaven  and  earth,  if  any  dispute  hap- 
pens about  a  settlement,  and,  in  that  particular,  to  invert  the  general  rule,  and 
stick  at  no  expense.  To  pull  down  cottages.  To  drive  out  as  many  inhabitants 
and  admit  as  few  as  possibly  they  can;  that  is,  to  depopulate  the  parish  in 
order  to  lessen  the  poor-rate.  To  be  generous  indeed,  in  sometimes  giving  a 
portion  with  the  mother  of  a  bastard  child  to  the  reputed  father,  on  condition 
that  he  will  marry  her  [and  support  her ;]  or  with  a  poor  widow,  for  why  should 
she  be  without  the  comforts  of  matrimony  ?— always  provided  that  the  husband 
is  settled  in  another  parish.  Or,  if  a  poor  man  with  a  large  family  appears  to 
be  industrious,  they  will  charitably  assist  him  in  taking  a  farm  in  another 
parish  at  £10  a  year,  and  give  him  the  money  to  pay  his  first  year's  rent;  and 
if  any  of  the  poor  have  a  mercantile  genius,  they  will  purchase  him  a  box  of 
pins,  needles,  laces,  buckles,  and  sueh-like  wares,  and  send  him  abroad  in  the 
quality  of  a  petty  chapman :  with  the  profits  thereof,  and  a  moderate  knack  at 
stealing,  he  can  decently  support  himself,  and  educate  his  children  in  the  same 
industrious  way." — Page  211. 


• 


A  Catalogue  of  some  English  Works  on  the  Poor-laws  and 
THEIR  Administration,  and  on  the  Poor. 

Proposals  for  Employing  the  Poor,  by  T.  Firmin, London,  1678 

Provision  for  the  Poor,  by  Sir  M.  Hale, "  1683 

Proposals  for  a  College  of  Industry,  by  John  Sellers, •  •      "  1696 

Giving  Alms  no  Charity,  by  Daniel  Defoe, "  1704 

Effectual  Provision  for  the  Poor,  by  II.  Fielding, "  1753 

Defects  of  the  Poor-laws,  by  Th.  Alcock,  8vo. "  1752 

Considerations  on  Better  Management  of  the  Poor,  4to. "  1752 

Of  the  Care  of  the  Poor  in  most  Civilized  Nations,  by  Richard 

Onely,4to. "  1758 


NOTES.  291 


Causes  of  the  Increase  of  the  Poor,  by  Josiah  Tucker,  4to. Londoti,    1760 

Letters  on  the  Rising  Generation  of  the  Labouring  Part  of  our 

Fellow-subjects,  by  Jonas  Hanway,  2  vols.  8vo. "  1767 

A  Dissertation  on  the  Poor-laws,  by  Rev.  Joseph  Townsend,  8vo.  "  1786 
Causes  of  Increase  of  Poor  and  Poor-rates,  by  Rev.  John 

Howlett,  Svo. «  1788 

History  of  the  Poor,  by  Thomas  Ruggles,  2  vols.  Svo. "  1793 

This  writer  first  clearly  announced  the  wrong  which  the  Established 
Church  had  done  to  the  poor,  by  taking  possession  of  and  holding  the 
church  property  given  for  the  relief  of  the  poor.  It  is  said  he  was 
compelled  by  clerical  influence  to  expurgate  his  work  and  publish 
without  these  objectionable  allegations  upon  the  purity  of  the  Church. 

Means  of  Providing  Employment  for  the  People,  a  Prize  Essay, 

by  Samuel  Crumpe,  Svo. London,    1795 

The  Case  of  Labourers  in  Husbandry  stated,  by  Rev.  D.  Davis,  4to.      «  1795 

The  State  of  the  Poor ;  or,  a  History  of  the  Labouring  Classes  in 
England  from  the  Conquest  to  the  Present  Period;  their 
Domestic  Economy,  with  respect  to  diet,  dress,  fuel,  habi- 
tation, and  plans  adopted  for  their  relief,  by  Sir  F.  M. 
Eden,  3  vols.  •ito. «  1797 

This  is  the  most  elaborate  work  to  which  this  fruitful  topic  has 
given  rise.  It  is  highly  valuable  in  the  sense  in  which  this  subject 
was  viewed.  It  descends  to  the  merest  minutiae  of  food  and  clothing, 
and  sifts  numberless  reports,  documents,  and  accounts,  to  exhibit  the  ' 
true  cost  of  maintaining  the  poor  during  the  period  to  which  it  relates. 
The  treatment  of  the  poor  is  discussed  solely  in  the  light  of  economy. 
It  is  the  best  history  of  prices  for  the  last  three  centuries  extant,  and 
is,  otherwise,  an  important  collection  of  facts.  Can  any  thing  more 
strongly  exhibit  the  blindness  of  English  people  to  the  true  relations 
of  this  subject,  than  that  a  work  of  3  vols.  4to.  could  be  written  upon 
the  State  of  the  Poor,  from  the  Conquest  to  the  year  1797,  on  which 
so  little  should  be  said  upon  the  true  nature  of  the  claims  of  the  poor 
and  the  obligations  of  the  rich  ?  The  author  has,  however,  said  enough 
to  show  that  he  was  not  ignorant  of  the  ti'uth,  but  he  evidently  con- 
siders that  view  of  the  subject  as  one  of  small  importance. 

Inquiry  into  the  Folicy  and  Humanity  of  the  poor  laws,  by  J. 

Weyland,  Svo. London. 

A  Treatise  on  Indigence,  by  P.  Colquhoun,  Svo.  [This  is  not  ele- 
mentary, as  its  title  imports.] • "  1808 

Systematic  Relief  of  Poor  in  different  Countries,  by  J.  Duncan,  •  Bath,        1815 


292  NOTES. 


Report  and  Eridence  on  Mendicity  in  the  Metropolis,  to  House 

of  Commons,  folio London,    1815 

Condition  of  Labouring  Classes  of  Society,  by  John  Barton,  8vo.      "  1817 

Report  to  House  of  Commons  on  Poor-laws, 1817 

Remarks  on  the  Report  on  the  Poor-laws,  by  J.  H.  Moggridge,  8vo.  Bristol,  1818 
Causes  of  Depreciation  of  Agricultural  Labour,  by  J.  Barton,  •  •  -London,  1820 
Administration  of  the  Poor-laws,  by  Rev.  C.  D.  Brereton,  8vo.-  -Norwich,    1823 

Workhouse  System, same *'    •  •      "  1826 

Causes  and  Remedies  of  Modern  Pauperism,  •••same "   ••      "  1827 

Poor-laws,  as  a  Scheme  of  Beneyolence  and  as  to  their  Political 

Economy,  by  J.  E.  Bicheno,  8vo. London,    1824 

Principle  of  English  Poor-laws  Defended,  by  F.  Page,  8vo.  Bath,  1822  "  1830 

Reports  to  House  of  Commons,  1824  and  1825,  on  Condition  of 

Manufacturing  Population,  folio, 

Nature,  Extent,  and  Effects  of  Pauperism,  by  Thos.  Walker,  •  •  •      "  1826 

Administration  of  Poor-laws,  by  T.  Calvert, •  •  •  •      "  1831 

Christian  and  Civic  Economy  of  Large  Towns,  by  Thomas  Chal- 
mers, D.  D.,  3  vols.  8vo. 1821-26 

Causes  and  Remedies  of  Pauperism  in  Great  Britain,  by  R.  Wil- 

mot  Horton,  Svo. London,    1830 

Moral  and  Physical  Condition  of  Working  Classes,  by  J.  H. 

Kay,  M.  D.,  Svo. - "  1832 

The  Poor  and  the  Labouring  Classes  in  America  and  Europe,  by 

N.  W.  Senior,  8vo. «  1835 

Manufacturing  Population  of  England,  Moral,  Social,  and  Physi- 
cal, by  P.  Gaskell,  Svo. «  1833 

The  History  of  the  Middle  and  Working  Classes, — the  Economi- 
cal and  Political  Principles  which  have  influenced  the 
Past  and  Present  Condition  of  the  Industrious  Orders,  by 
John  Wade, «  1833 

Several  editions  of  this  valuable  work  have  appeared  since. 

The  Agricultural  Classes  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  with 
Extracts  from  Parliamentary  Reports  from  1833  to  1840, 
Remarks  of  the  French  Editor,  published  at  Vienna,  with 

a  Preface,  by  Henry  Drummond,  Esq.,  2  vols.  Svo. "  1842 

This  mystified  title,  doubtless,  is  but  a  thin  covering  to  the  fact  that 

H.  Drummond  is  responsible  for  the  work. 

National  Distress,  its  Causes  and  Remedies,  by  Samuel  Laing, 

Esq.  Jun.,  Svo. London,    1844 

The  Working  Classes,  their  Moral,  Social,  and  Intellectual  con- 
dition, with  Suggestions  for  their  Improvement,  by  G. 
Simmons,  12mo. '*  1849 

The  Social  Condition  and  Education  of  the  People  in  England 

and  Europe,  by  Joseph  Kay,  2  vols.  8vo. "  1850 


NOTES.  293 


The  Population  Question  and  its  Discussions. 

The  discussions  carried  on  in  the  books  on  the  subject  of  the  poor 
and  poor-laws  were  much  enlivened  by  the  publication  of  the  Rev.  T. 
R.  Malthus,  in  1798,  of  "An  Essay  on  the  Princij^le  of  Population,  as 
it  AflFects  the  Future  Improvement  of  Society,"  London,  Svo.,  already  re- 
ferred to  by  our  author,  who  has  quoted  some  of  its  positions,  {ante, 
page  150.) 

Malthus  produced  nothing  very  original ;  he  merely  reduced  Eng- 
lish feeling  and  usages  in  regard  to  the  poor  into  a  philosophy.  Pre- 
vious to  this  publication,  the  questions  discussed  had  been  chiefly  as 
to  points  of  economy  in  keeping  the  poor,  and  the  very  point  of  feed- 
ing had  been  assiduously  ascertained,  discussed,  and  tried :  it  had  also 
been  a  matter  of  much  inquiry  how  far  and  in  what  way  the  labour  of 
paupers  might  be  made  to  pay  for  their  maintenance.  In  these  in- 
quiries, nothing,  however  small  or  unimportant,  escaped  remark  :  in  a 
question  of  economy,  a  very  small  saving,  even  that  of  a  few  pence  in  a 
year,  made  a  large  sum  when  multiplied  by  the  poor  of  England.  The 
keeper  of  one  of  the  workhouses  once  made  the  important  discovery  that 
the  constant  use  of  the  same  scales  in  weighing  out  paupers'  rations 
had  worn  upon  one  side  of  the  scales  so  as  sensibly  to  affect  the  adjust- 
ment. This  was  brought  forward  at  the  meeting  of  the  superintendents 
as  indicating  the  means  of  a  considerable  economy.  But  no  one,  who  has 
not  looked  into  the  details  which  occupied  the  attention  of  writers  and  ad- 
ministrators of  the  poor-laws,  can  conceive  to  what  a  nicety  of  manage- 
ment this  economy  was  carried.  A  question  of  moment  was  debated 
by  many,  while  the  attention  of  others  was  directed  to  the  point  of 
economy, — that  of  the  propriety  of  any  compulsory  provision  for  the 
poor ;  some  alleging  that  the  poor  ought  to  be  left  to  the  charity  of 
individuals — any  public  provision  made  for  them  only  encouraging 
idleness  and  consequent  pauperism.  Others  averred  that  there  must 
be  paupers,  and  that  they  could  be  more  economically  kept  upon  some 
general  plan,  applicable  to  all,  and  that  allowing  hordes  of  beggars  to 
stroll  through  the  kingdom  was  an  anno3'ance  not  to  be  endured.  It  was 
much  discussed  whether  paupers  should  be  confined,  families  being  sepa- 
rated, in  poorhouses,  or  let  out  to  the  farmers,  upon  the  best  terms  ob- 
tainable. In  the  midst  of  these  and  many  like  debates,  IMr.  Malthus 
appeared,  and  announced  that  he  had  discovered  the  philosophy  of  the 

25^ 


294  NOTE  s. 

•whole  matter.  Ho  took  the  diseupsion  by  the  horns,  and  rejected  all 
the  previous  plans  and  opinions,  compulsory  provision,  economy,  and 
all.  He  told  the  people  of  England,  they  were  fast  approaching  a  pe- 
riod when  the  population  would  exceed  the  supply  of  food,  and  that  it 
was  unjust  and  unphilosophical  to  nurture  and  keep  alive  men  who 
would  soon  take  the  bread  out  of  the  mouths  of  those  who  were  now  so 
generously  feeding  them.  Let  them  alone,  they  will  only  die  by  pri- 
vation— they  came  unbidden  to  the  banquet  of  life — there  is  no  place 
for  them ;  do  not  let  them  usurp  your  places  at  the  feast;  do  not  give 
them  a  morsel ;  if  let  alone,  nature  will  execute  her  decrees,  and  send 
them  out  of  the  way.  This  philosophy  of  Mr.  Malthus  made  a  great 
sensation  :  to  some  it  appeared  as  clear  a  truth  as  ever  was  announced  : 
others  regarded  it  with  unmingled  horror  and  detestation.  The  politi- 
cal economists,  who  are  supposed  to  look  upon  men  as  machines  for  the 
production  and  distribution  of  wealth,  took  sides  with  Mr.  Malthu?. 
The  humane  classes  took  the  other  side.  After  the  appearance  of  Mr. 
Malthus's  work,  one  branch  of  the  discussion  turned  upon  his  views, 
while  the  others  followed  the  old  tracks.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
the  cry  of  horror  which  was  uttered  at  the  first  appearance  of  Mr. 
Malthus's  work,  induced  him  to  omit  in  subsequent  editions  the  most 
objectionable  passages,  and,  among  others,  that  quoted  above,  page  150. 
Eut  these  omissions  leave  his  theory  unimpaired  in  its  full  scope. 
And  that  is,  that  no  one  has  any  business  to  remain  in  this  world  who 
cannot  of  himself  make  himself  comfortable;  and  that  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  increase  of  such  people,  by  withdrawing 
all  countenance  and  aid  from  them.  This  theory  was  not  suffered  to 
go  untouched.  It  was  attacked  with  great  vigour  and  eloquence,  both 
in  England  and  on  the  continent,  and  defended  by  Mr.  Malthus  and 
others,  with  talent  and  learning.  We  give  a  list  of  a  few  of  the  works 
which  followed  Mr.  Malthus  on  the  subject  of  "population." 


The  State  of  the  Poor.  The  Prineiplo  of  Mr.  Malthus's  Essay  on  Popu- 
lation and  the  Manufacturing  System.  Robert  Southey.  80  pp. 
12mo. 1812 

The  State  of  the  Poor  and  the  Means  pursued  by  the  Society  for  Better- 

iiog  their  ConJition.    Robert  Southey.     87  pp.  12mo. 1816 

A  Treatise  on  the  Records  of  Creation,  &c.,  showing  the  Consistency  of 
the  Principle  of  Population,  with  the  Wisdom  and  Goodness  of  the 
Deity,  by  J.  B.  Sumner,  Bishop  of  Chester,  2  vols.  8vo. London,    1815 

The  Principles  of  Population  and  Production,  as  they  are  Affected  by  the 


N  0  T  K  s.  295 


Progress  of   Society,  •with  a  view  to  moral   and  political   conse- 
quences.   John  Weyland,  Jun.,  F.  R.  S.  8vo.   London,    1816 

An  Inquiry  into  the  Population  of  Nations,  containing  a  Refutation  of 

Malthus's  Essay  on  Population.    George  Ensor,  8  vo. London,     1818 

Of  Population.  An  Inquiry  concerning  the  Power  of  Increase  in  the 
Numbers  of  Mankind,  being  an  Answer  to  Mr.  Malthus,  &c.  Wm. 
Godwin,  8yo. London,    1820 

Illustrations  and  Proofs  of  the  Principle  of  Population,   by  Francis 

Place,  8vo. London,    1822 

New  Ideas  of  Population,  with  Remarks  on  Malthus  and  Godwin,  by  Alex. 

11.  Everett,  Minister  of  the  U.  S.  at  the  Netherlands,  8vo.  London,    1823 

Lecturjfs  on  Population,  with  a  Correspondence  between  the  Author  and 

Mr.  Malthus,  by  N.  W.  Senior,  8to. London,    1829 

The  Law  of  Population,  a  Treatise  in  Disproof  of  the  Super-fecundity  of 
Human  Beings  and  developing  the  real  principle  of  their  Increase, 
by  M.  T.  Saddler,  M.  P.,  2  vols.  8vo. London,    1830 

An  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of  Population,  exhibiting  a  System  of 
Regulations  for  the  Poor,  designed  to  lessen  and  finally  remove  the 
evils  pressing  upon  the  Labouring  Classes  of  Society,  8vo.  London,    1832 

The  Principles  of  Population  and  their  Connection  with  Human  Happi- 
ness, by  Archd.  Allison,  2  vols.  8vo. Edinburgh,    1840 

The  True  Law  of  Population  shown  to  be  connected  with  the  Food  of  the 

People,  by  Thomas  Doubleday,  8vo. London,    1842 

Besides  these,  very  many  other  separate  publications  were  made  in 
this  controversy,  which  gave  birth  also  to  a  large  issue  of  pamphlets ; 
and  the  subject  was  largely  introduced  into  most  of  the  works  on  po- 
litical economy  which  have  appeared  since  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury. It  is  far  beyond  our  present  purpose  to  oifer  any  appreciation 
of  these  works  separately. 

We  regard  this  whole  discussion  as  among  the  most  remarkable  of 
modern  times.  It  exhibits  a  virtual  disregard  of  Christianity  scarcely 
to  be  equalled.  This  is  evidently  no  special  fault  of  the  respective 
writers;  for  they  and  their  readers  were  alike  involved  in  this  utter 
neglect  or  utter  misconception  of  Christianity.  These  writers  were, 
many  of  them,  far  from  being  infidels :  their  reference  to  religion  is 
frequent  and  respectful.  The  marvel  is  that,  for  the  solution  of  the 
great  points  in  dispute,  they  neither  take  nor  seek  any  aid  from  Chris- 
tianity. The  whole  subject  is  man,  and  yet  humanity,  in  its  full 
meaning,  is  excluded  from  consideration.  The  topics  are,  the  law  of 
increase ;  the  laws  of  limitation ;  the  supply  of  food ;  economy  of 
feeding;  restraints  of  marriage,  moral  and  political;  police;  com- 
pulsory provision:  poorhouse  regulations;  labour,  manufacturing  and 


296  NOTES. 


agriciiltural.  The  statistics  of  the  world  were  ransacked  to  supply 
materials  for  these  and  very  many  similar  subjects.  Learning  and 
ability  worthy  of  a  better  cause  were  most  profusely  expended  in  the 
wide  range  of  these  treatises.  These  authors  and  their  readers  grapple 
with  a  great  difficulty,  and,  for  more  than  a  generation  after  the  work 
of  Malthus  appeared,  they  struggled  to  produce  some  grand  solution. 
But  they  never  advanced  a  step.  They  never  can,  in  that  path. 
So  long  as  those  who,  for  the  time,  are  rich  or  comfortable  in  life,  con- 
fine themselves  to  the  inquiry  how  they  can  perpetuate  such  a  desirable 
state  of  things;  how  they  can  manage  to  hold  a  heavy  mortgage  on 
the  labour  of  the  masses,  and  make  them  work  it  out ;  how  they  can 
keep  down  the  numbers  of  the  poor  to  the  point  at  which  they  can  by 
their  labour  make  up  the  incomes  of  the  rich  and  comfortable,  with- 
out risk  of  becoming  a  burden ;  how  food  and  labour  can  be  kept 
plenty  and  cheap ;  how  one-tenth  of  the  population  can  manage  to 
live  in  elegance,  and  ease,  and  English  comfort,  whilst  the  nine-tenths 
are  suffering  all  the  degradation  of  mind  and  body,  all  the  nakedness, 
and  hunger,  and  other  privations  of  utter  poverty ;  and,  in  fine,  how 
the  poor  can  be  best  managed,  to  get  a  large  living  out  of  them,  without 
danger  of  having  that  living  absorbed  in  keeping  them  alive, — so  long 
the  Christian  and  only  true  solution  of  the  great  problem  of  human 
well-being  will  never  be  reached.  In  England,  the  rich  man  cannot 
endure  to  have  Lazarus  at  his  gate ;  he  cannot  endure  a  beggar  in  the 
highway  or  in  his  private  path.  The  Englishman  of  wealth  is  emi- 
nently respectable.  He  sends  the  beggar  to  some  secluded  spot,  where 
his  shabby  looks  can  offend  no  gentle  eyes,  nor  spoil  a  landscape  ia 
which  all  that  is  permitted  to  be  seen  is  beautiful  and  rich ;  he  gives 
him  work,  when  he  has  any,  and  food  to  keep  him  alive.  But  labour 
may  be  always  kept  plenty  a,nd  cheap  when  nine-tenths  of  the  people 
labour  for  one-tenth,  and  a  very  large  profit  may  be  realized  on  the 
operation;  for  though  only  half-work  is  required  from  these  people,  yet 
they  are  only  half-fed  and  half-clothed.  If  the  poor  were  full-fed,  full- 
clothed,  and  full-worked,  they  would  rapidly  save  enough  to  become 
sufficiently  independent  to  make  their  own  terms  for  their  labour,  and 
thus  gradually  bring  about  a  more  equal  and  just  distribution  of  the 
avails  of  labour. 

In  all  this  prolonged  discussion,  none  of  those  engaged  ever  fairly 
rose  to  the  conception  that  every  Christian  man  is  a  guardian  of  the 
poor,  under  religious  obligations  to  succour  all  the  suffering  within  his 


NOTES.  297 


rcacli,  and,  not  only  to  assist  individuals,  but,  according  to  the  ex- 
ample of  his  Divine  Master,  to  feed  and  help  the  multitudes.  The 
saeritice  necessary  to  accomplish  any  great  change  in  the  position  of 
the  poor  in  England  appeared  greater  than  any  government  dared  re- 
quire of  the  governed,  or  was  able  to  effect  without  some  flagrant  and 
imjustifiable  violations  of  the  right  of  property.  It  did  not  occur  to 
these  authors  that  this  sacrifice  could  come  from  the  spontaneous 
action  of  the  people  under  the  pressure  of  religions  motives.  Less 
effort,  and,  perhaps,  less  money  than  was  expended  upon  the  attempt 
to  abolish  the  slave-trade,  and  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  in  the 
West  Indies,  would  have  been  sufl5cient  to  accomplish  a  thorough 
change  of  policy  in  regard  to  the  poor,  by  which,  if  they  were  not  im- 
mediately lifted  above  the  state  of  poverty,  they  would  be  lifted  into 
a  state  of  hope,  and  the  energies  of  men,  long  paralyzed  with  despair, 
would  be  roused  to  successful  action. 

We  believe  that  no  ingenuity,  no  talent,  no  effort  of  any  human  in- 
tellect can  solve  the  questions  involved  in  those  discussions,  so  long  as 
such  data  are  assumed  as  a  basis  of  discussion.  That  door  is  irrevo- 
cably shut  against  human  eyes  and  human  strength.  It  is  not  for 
men  to  adjust  the  food  of  the  world  to  the  population  of  the  world, 
and" much  less  is  it  for  them,  as  assumed  by  Malthus  and  those  of  his 
school,  to  adjust  the  population  of  the  world  to  the  food  of  the  world. 
This  partakes  rather  too  much  of  an  intervention  in  the  Divine  govern- 
ment— of  assuming  the  reins  of  Providence.  There  were  questions 
to  be  solved,  doubtless,  growing  out  of  the  position  of  the  poor  in 
England,  but  the  true  solution  could  never  be  reached  by  speculations 
upon  the  possible  increase  of  food  or  the  possible  increase  of  popula- 
tion, compidsory  provision,  parish  charge,  out-door,  in-door,  or  work- 
house relief.  All  these  questions  assumed  that  all  was  right  in  British 
institutions  except  what  was  referred  to,  and  of  course  the  disputants 
did  not  even  touch  the  elements  of  the  subject.  The  real  questions 
are, — How  can  the  labour  of  man  be  best  applied  to  subserve  the  ne- 
cessities and  comforts  of  man  ?  As  it  is  plain,  fx-om  the  order  of  Provi- 
dence, from  the  inequalities  in  the  mental  and  physical  energies  and 
faculties  of  men,  that  some  must  act  under  the  direction  of  others,  or, 
perhaps,  fall  under  their  dominion,  what  should  be  the  limit  of  the 
power  thus  attainable  ?  To  what  extent  may  the  labour  of  a  few  or  of 
many  be  mortgaged  for  the  benefit  of  those  who,  by  superior  industry, 
or  talents,  or  energy,  may  be  able  to  subject  them  to  their  power? 


298  NOTES. 


And,  if  Christianity  he  heard  on  a  subject  so  vitally  interwoven  with 
its  precepts,  what  light  is  shed  upon  this  topic  by  the  life  and  instruc- 
tions of  its  Great  Author  ? 

If  it  be  objected  that  this  abstract  consideration  of  the  subject  could 
not  lead  to  any  practical  result,  because  all  such  questions  arise  under 
actual  governments  and  established  institutions,  which  must,  more  or 
less,  modify  every  decision,  the  reply  is,  that  the  abstract  truth  must 
be  discovered  and  fully  understood  before  it  can  be  ascertained  how 
far  existing  laws  and  institutions  stand  in  the  way  of  reform.  When 
the  truth  shall  be  known,  the  obstacles  will  be  known,  and  plans  of  re- 
form can  be  devised,  including  such  political  changes  as  may  be 
needful  for  complete  success.  Shall  this  whole  discussion  be  excluded 
from  the  pale  of  Christianity  ?  In  all  matters  of  politics,  and  in  all 
of  humanity,  shall  Christians  always  walk  through  the  world  with 
their  lights  deeply  shaded,  thiat  they  may  appear  to  be  as  much  in  the 
dark  as  those  who  are  groping  round  them  ? 

In  all  this  controversy  about  "  population,"  no  event  is  more  sti'iking 
than  the  advent  upon  the  arena  of  Dr.  Thomas  Chalmers,  the  great 
Scottish  divine.  He  entered  upon  the  subject  with  all  the  zeal  which  be- 
longed to  his  character,  and,  though  he  shed  a  flood  of  light  vipon  it,  and 
has  left  a  mine  of  materials  for  future  labourers  in  that  career,  he  has 
added  another  to  the  many  instances,  that  clear  and  powerful  thinkers 
do  not  always,  nor  even  soonest,  reach  the  truth.  He  failed  to  assume 
the  proper  elements  in  his  outset,  to  lay  the  right  foundation  for  his 
structure,  and  therefore  failed  in  erecting  a  well-proportioned  super- 
structure. He  saw,  at  a  glance,  that  the  English  system  of  providing 
for  the  poor  was  both  impolitic  and  unchristian.  He  dashed  into  the 
contest  and  made  his  efforts  felt  on  every  side.  He  was  the  first  who 
fairly  carried  Christianity  into  the  field,  and  demonstrated  that  to 
Christians  and  Christian  ministers  belonged  the  care  of  the  poor. 
Himself  a  minister  of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  he  unfor- 
tunately took  his  whole  survey  of  the  subject  from  that  point  of  view. 
He  set  out  with  the  proposition  in  his  mind,  that  to  the  parishes,  as 
such,  of  an  Established  Church,  belonged  the  charge  of  the  poor. 
Having  once  assumed  this  wrong  ground,  he  went  into  the  discussion 
with  extraordinary  power  and  ardour,  carrying  with  him,  in  far  greater 
degree  than  any  who  had  preceded  him,  a  truly  Christian  desire  to 
redress  the  wrongs  of  the  poor.  It  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  tho 
absorbing  interest  of  this  subject,  and  his  ardour  in  maintaining  a 


NOTES.  299 


position  wliicli  he  deemed  to  be  the  only  one  consonant  with  Christi- 
anity, accounts  for  that  almost  bigoted  devotion  to  an  established 
church,  which  Dr.  Chalmers  disj)layed  for  many  years  of  his  life. 
Looking  upon  the  parish  ehiirches  and  their  officers  as  the  proper 
guardians  of  the  poor,  he  could  not  but  regard  with  impatience  any 
voluntary  system  or  dissenting  churches,  as  so  many  disorganizers,  who 
complicated  his  plans  for  the  poor  and  weakened  the  only  churches 
upon  whom  he  supposed  any  reliance  could  be  placed  for  performing  the 
great  office  of  relieving  suffering  humanity.  It  is  pleasant  to  discover 
what  thus  accounts  so  favourably  for  what  appeared  to  be  the  greatest 
defect  in  Dr.  Chalmers's  character.  His  zeal  for  the  poor  made  him, 
for  a  time,  an  uncompromising  opponent  of  Christian  freedom.  The 
severe  lesson  he  received  before  his  death,  in  the  disruption  of  the 
Scotch  Establishment,  and  the  noble  sacrifice  of  sentiment  he  made 
by  uniting  in  the  secession,  showed  how  far  he  was  above  preserving 
consistency  at  the  expense  of  truth.  He  suffered  in  this  more  mental 
agony,  probably,  than  any  other  individual  who  left  the  Establishment. 
How  his  opinions  were  modified,  in  regard  to  the  poor,  we  are  not  in- 
formed, but  we  feel  confident,  that  if  the  occasion  had  offered  to  pro- 
duce another  work  on  the  subject,  it  would  have  been  what  is  yet  a 
desideratum  in  Christian  literature.  Dr.  Chalmers's  error,  in  the  first 
place,  was  assuming  the  parish  churches  to  be  the  proper  guardians 
of  the  poor,  instead  of  taking  the  higher  ground  that  every  Christian 
is  a  guardian  of  the  poor,  and  insisting  upon  the  great  law  which 
requires  us  to  love  our  neighbour  as  ourselves.  His  system  of  action 
should  have  been  developed  from  that  law,  and  not  from  the  duty  of 
parish  churches.  He  could  then,  without  difficulty,  have  reached  and 
brought  in  the  agency  of  congregations  under  all  systems  of  religion, 
both  established  and  voluntary.  When  the  duties  of  individual  Chris- 
tians towards  the  suffering  are  all  discharged,  there  will  not  be  much 
left  for  parish  churches  or  separate  congregations  to  perform. 

But  though  Dr.  Chalmers  committed  this  error,  and  though  he  failed 
in  his  "  Christian  and  Civic  Economy  of  Large  Towns,"  to  produce  the 
work  which  was  needed,  and  though  political  economists,  so  called, 
have  not  assigned  a  high  rank  to  that  production,  it  contains  more 
truth,  more  profound  Christian  philosophy,  more  pure  Christian  sym- 
pathy for  the  poor  than  any  one  to  which  the  controversy  has  given 
rise. 

The  following  extracts  from  Chalmers's  "  Christian  and  Civic  Eco- 


300  NOTES. 


nomy"  will  help  to  illustrate  the  subject  of  the  foregoing  pages,  and 
afford  a  specimen  of  the  manner  and  tone  of  his  work: 

"There  are  macy  towns  in  our  empire,  where  the  Establishment  has  not  pro- 
Tided  room  in  churches  for  one-tenth  of  the  inhabitants."  .  ..."  It  is  clear, 
in  these  circumstances,  that  the  vast  majority  must  be  left  to  wander  without 
the  pale  of  Christian  ministrations,  and  Christian  ordinances,  altogether — 
where  they  hare  settled  down  into  a  mass  of  heathenism,  which,  to  the  eye  of 
common  experience,  looks  completely  irrecoverable.  There  is  a  very  general 
feeling  of  helplessness  and  despair  upon  this  subject,  as  if  the  profligacy  and 
ungodliness  of  cities  were  elements  in  every  way  as  unconquerabie  as  is  phy- 
sical necessity  itself."  .... 

"All  serving  to  confirm  the  general  hopelessness  that  there  is  upon  the  sub- 
ject, and  to  afford  a  plausible  warrant  for  the  contempt  wherewith  schemes  of 
philanthropy  are  so  apt  to  be  regarded  by  the  more  secular  /ind  sober-minded 
of  our  citizens,  who  feel  satisfied  with  things  as  they  are,  nor  want  their  quies- 
cence to  be  at  all  disturbed  by  any  suggestion  or  demonstration,  whateverj  of 
things  as  they  should  be." 

"  It  has  transformed  the  whole  character  of  charity,  by  turning  a  mat- 
ter of  love  into  a  matter  of  litigation :  and  so,  has  seared  and  shut  many 
a  heart,  out  of  which  the  spontaneous  emanations  of  good-will  would 
have  gone  plentifully  forth  among  the  abodes  of  the  destitute.  We  know 
not  how  a  more  freezing  arrest  can  be  laid  on  the  current  of  benevo- 
lence, than  when  it  is  met  in  the  tone  of  a  rightful,  and  perhaps,  indignant  de- 
mand for  that,  wherewith  it  was  ready,  on  its  own  proper  impulse,  to  pour  re- 
freshment and  relief  over  the  whole  field  of  ascertained  wretchedness.  There 
is  a  mighty  difi"erence  of  effect  between  an  imperative  and  an  imploring  applica- 
tion. The  one  calls  out  the  jealousy  of  our  nature,  and  puts  us  upon  the  atti- 
tude of  surly  and  determined  resistance.  The  other  calls  out  the  compassion 
of  our  nature,  and  inclines  us  to  the  free  and  willing  movements  of  generosity. 
It  is  in  the  former  attitude,  that,  under  a  system  of  overgrown  pauperism,  we 
now,  generally  speaking,  behold  the  wealthy  in  reference  to  the  working 
classes  of  England.  They  stand  to  each  other  in  a  grim  array  of  hostility — 
the  one  thankless  and  dissatisfied,  and  stoutly  challenging  as  its  due,  what  the 
other  reluctantly  yields,  and  that  as  sparingly  as  possible.  Had  such  been  a 
right  state  of  things,  then  pity  would  have  been  more  a  superfluous  feeling  in 
our  constitution ;  as  its  functions  would  have  been  nearly  superseded  by  the 
operation  of  law  and  justice.  And  the  truth  is,  that  this  sweetener  of  the  ills 
of  life  has  been  greatly  stifled  by  legislation;  while  the  amount  of  actual  and 
unrelieved  wretchedness  among  the  peasantry  of  England  too  plainly  de- 
monstrates, that  the  economy  of  pauperism  has  failed  to  provide  an  adequate 
substitute  in  its  room.  Were  this  economy  simply  broken  up,  and  the  fountain 
of  human  sympathy  again  left  free  to  be  operated  upon  by  its  wonted  excite- 
ments, and  to  send  out  its  wonted  streams  throughout  those  manifold  subordi- 
nations by  which  the  various  classes  of  society  are  bound  and  amalgamated 


X  0  T  E  s.  301 

together— we  doubt  not  that  from  this  alone  a  more  abundant,  or,  at  least,  a 
far  more  efficient  and  better  spread  tide  of  charity  would  be  diffused  through- 
out the  habitations  of  indigence."  .... 

"  And  we  fear  not,  on  the  other  hand,  the  dislike  of  the  theologian  to  our 
announcement,  that  the  pauperism  itself  is  a  moral  nuisance,  which  must  be 
swept  away  from  these  realms,  ere  we  can  rationally  hope  for  a  very  powerful 
or  prevalent  spirit  of  Christianity  in  the  land.  That  which  letteth  must  be 
taken  out  of  the  way.  It  is,  indeed,  a  heavy  incumbrance  on  the  work  of  a 
clergyman,  whose  office  it  is  to  substitute  jimong  his  people  the  graces  of  a  new 
character,  for  the  hardness,  and  selfishness,  and  the  depraved  tendencies  of  na- 
ture, that,  in  addition  to  the  primary  and  essential  evils  of  the  human  consti- 
tution, he  has  to  struggle,  in  his  holy  warfare,  against  a  system  so  replete  aa 
pauperism  is,  with  all  that  can  minister  to  the  worst,  or  that  can  wither  up  the 
best  affections  of  our  species."  .... 

"  We  hold  pauperism  to  be  a  still  more  deadly  antagonist  to  the  morality  of 
our  nation."  ....  "Like  the  Malaire  in  Italy,  it  has  now  attained  a  pro- 
gress and  a  virulency,  which  begin  to  be  contemplated  with  the  awe  of  some 
great  approaching  desolation ;  and  a  sense  of  helplessness  mingles  with  the 
terror  which  is  inspired  by  the  forebodings  of  a  mighty  disaster,  that  has  been 
gathering  along  the  lapse  of  time,  into  a  more  distinct  shape  and  more  appal- 
ling magnitude.  It  is  indeed,  a  frightful  spectacle  ;  aJid  the  heart  of  the  Chris- 
tian, as  well  as  of  the  civil  philanthropist,  ought  to  be  solemnised  bj  it.  He,  of 
all  men,  should  not  look  on  with  indifference,  while  the  vapour  of  this  teeming 
exhalation  so  thickens  and  spreads  itself  throughout  the  whole  moral  atmo- 
sphere of  our  land  :  And,  when  he  witnesses  the  fell  malignity  of  its  opera- 
tion, both  on  the  graver  and  more  amiable  virtues  of  our  nature, — when  he 
sees  how  diligence  in  the  callings,  and  economy  in  the  habits  of  individuals,  are 
alike  extinguished  by  it,  and  both  the  tendernesses  of  relationship  and  the 
wider  charities  of  life,  are  chilled  and  overborne — we  should  expect  of  this 
friend  to  the  higher  interests  of  our  species,  that  he,  among  all  his  fellows,  would 
be  most  intent  on  the  destruction  of  a  system  that  so  nips  the  best  promises  of 
spiritual  cultivation,  and,  under  the  balefulness  of  whose  shadow,  are  now 
withering  into  rapid  decay,  and  sure  annihilation,  the  very  fairest  of  the  fruits 
of  righteousness." 

If  companionship  in  crime  or  in  adversity  make  strange  bedfellows, 
so  companionship  in  error  affords  not  less  curious  specimens  of  incon- 
gnious  fellowship.  Parties,  having  taken  their  sides  with  little  or 
no  reference  to  Christianity,  lug  it  in  to  serve  the  purposes  of  the  dis- 
cussion, to  turn  a  period  or  to  point  a  sneer,  according  to  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  writer.  It  was  not  the  object  of  even  Chalmers  to  solve  the 
question  by  means  of  Christian  truth,  but  to  establish  his  position 
that  compulsory  provisions  for  the  poor  were  of  evil  tendency,  and  that 
the  proper  charge  of  the  poor  belonged  to  the  parish  officials  of  an 

26 


302  NOTES. 


established  cburcli.     This  view  did  not  afford  him  a  fair  opportunity 
to  explain  the  nature  of  Christian  charity  ;  it  was  not  his  topic, — he 
did  not  attempt  a  full  exposition,  and  Christianity  only  plays  a  sub- 
ordinate part  in  the  system  of  Dr.  Chalmers.    Wayland,  in  his  work  on 
"  Population,"  refers  to  revelation  throughout,  as  offering  the  only  true 
solution,  but,  though  his  book  is  in  many  respects  well  written,  his  ex- 
hibition of  the  bearing  of  Christianity  on  this  subject  is  very  feeble, 
and  shows  how  slightly  he  felt  its  power,  and  how  little  he  knew  its 
scope.     It  is  worth,  observing,  in  these  various  authors,  their  various 
modes  of  referring  to  the  truths  of  Holy  Writ  as  furnishing  a  curious 
and  instructive  exhibition  of   the  human  mind  and  human  nature. 
But  no  one  can  fully  understand  the  relations  of  Christianity  to  this 
subject,  as  fixed  by  the  various  writers,  who  has  not  fully  mastered 
the  spirit  and  details  of  the  leading  author,  Malthus,  whose  "  Essay 
on  Population"  has,  ever  since  it  appeared,  ruled  the  faith  of  a  large 
number  of  disciples.     It  would  be  difficult  to  point  out  a  publication 
as  thoroughly  infidel  in  its  spirit  and  tendencies.     When  taken  up,  out 
of  the  controversy  about  population,  and  regarded  from  the  side  of 
Christianity,  the  book  cannot  be  read  without  an  accumulating  sense 
of  contempt,  horror,  and  indignation.     Yet  this  is  the  standard  book 
in  English  literatur.e  on  this  subject ;  its  positions  are  regarded  as  im- 
pregnable by  a  very  large  body  of  the  educated  people  of  Great  Bri- 
tain; audits  contents   are  the  received  doctrine  of  all  the  political 
economists,  strictly  so  called,  of  Europe  and  America. 

Yet  Dr.  Chalmers  is  found  battling  by  the  side  of  Malthus,  both 
agreeing  in  the  opposition  to  a  compulsory  legal  provision  for  the  poor  ; 
and  we  find  him  writing  to  his  friend  Morton — 

"  Mr.  Malthus's  theory  upon  this  subject  would  have  carried  me  without  ex- 
amples. But  it  seldom  happens  that  a  speculatiou  so  apparently  paradoxical, 
is  so  well  supported  by  the  most  triumphant  exemplifications."* 

It  is  scarcely  to  be  wondered  that,  when  such  a  man  can  receive  such 
theories  and  speculations  so  kindly,  the  Avorld  around  him  should  do  so 
likewise.  But,  whatever  the  number  of  Malthus's  innocent  disciples, 
there  were  not  wanting  many  who  detected  the  cloven  foot.  On  the 
Continent,  especially,  many,  who  did  not  belong  to  the  stricter  school  of 
political  economists,  denounced  the  work  as  atrocious  and  unchristian. 
It  required  an  infidel  to  detect  an  infidel,  according  to  the  spirit  of  the 
old  proverb :  and  thus  was  effected  a  complete  exposure  of  the  fallacies, 


*  Life  of  Chalmers,  vol.  ii.  386. 


NOTES.  303 


the  inhumanity,  and  the  infidelity  of  a  work  professedly  friendly  to 
Christianit}^,  the  production  of  one  of  its  ministers.  It  was  Wm.  God- 
win, Avho,  writing  "Of  Population,"  gave  the  first  effectual  check  to  the 
spread  of  Malthusian  doctrines.  AVithout  any  reference  to  the  argu- 
ment and  the  facts  of  Godwin,  in  which  unusual  ability  is  evinced,  as 
opposed  to  those  of  Malthus,  we  cannot  but  advert  to  the  effectiveness 
of  the  excoriation  which  he  applied  to  Malthus  and  his  oi)inions  :  not 
content  with  this,  he  crushes  him  indignantly  as  a  venomous  reptile. 
The  morbid  exposure  is  frightful ;  such  a  literary  smashing  was  rarely 
or  never  seen,  and  never  more  richly  merited.  If  a  butchery  like  this, 
were  unbecoming  a  Christian,  it  is  the  only  pretence  upon  which  the 
shame  of  leaving  its  execution  to  an  infidel  can  be  justified. 

Of  course,  such  a  punishment  will  neither  bear  transfer  nor  abridg- 
ment, but  we  must  not  let  the  occasion  pass  without  giving  a  specimen 
of  Mr.  Godwin.  The  portentous  evil  which  Mr.  Malthus  held  up  to 
frighten  the  world  was,  the  fact  asserted  by  him,  that  population  tended 
to  increase  in  a  geometrical  ratio,  and  subsistence  in  an  arithmetical 
ratio  : 

Thus,  Food,  1234567     8       9 

Population,  1  2  4  8  16  32  64  128  256. 

"  This,  then,  is  the  precise  outline  of  Mr.  Malthus's  system.  Tho 
evils  against  which  he  would  guard  are  hunger  and  famine ;  the  reme- 
dies for  these  evils  are  vice  and  misery."*  Unimpeded  increase  would, 
"  in  less  than  two  thousand  years,  people  the  whole  visible  universe,  at 
the  rate  of  four  men  to  every  yard  square."t  It  must,  of  course,  have 
required  a  vast  deal  of  vice  and  misery  to  counteract  such  a  ratio  of  in- 
crease as  that  imports.  Mr.  Malthus,  to  remove  some  of  the  harshness 
of  his  conclusions  in  the  earlier  editions  of  his  work,  introduces  another 
check  to  population,  which  he  calls  "moral  restraint,"  but  he  constantly 
insinuates  a  caution  against  any  reliance  upon  it.  He  finds  that  "  in 
past  ages  it.  has  operated  with  very  inconsiderable  force,"  and  he  is 
not  visionary  enough  to  entertain  "  any  opinion  respecting  the  future 
improvement  of  society,  in  which  he  is  not  borne  out  by  the  experience 
of  the  past."  His  main  dependence,  therefore,  against  the  enormous 
calamity  of  an  over-peopled  world,  is  vice  and  misery.  Mr.  Malthus 
"  sits  remote,  like  a  malignant  providence  dispensing  from  his  magazine 
all  the  various  iniquities  and  miseries  of  life,  which,  sooner  or  later,"  in 


*  Godwin  on  Population,  chap.  i.  book  vi.  51C.     t  Malthus,  vol.  ii.  p.  344,  note. 


304  NOTES. 


various  degrees,  contribute  to  shorten  the  natural  duration  of  huma»" 
life.     '•  That  is  the  desideratum."* 

He  examines  the  population  of  all  the  counti-ies  of  the  world,  and 
finds  confirmation  of  his  doctrine  everywhere — vice  and  misery  in 
abundance  ;  he  does  not  discriminate,  and  cares  not  for  kind  or  degree, 
so  it  be  inherent  and  eJBfective.  If  inherent  in  the  constitution  of  all 
societies,  it  must  operate  in  every  condition  of  the  human  famil3\  He 
finds,  therefore,  that  "  human  institutions,  however  they  may  appear  to 
be  the  causes  of  much  mischief  to  society,  are  in  reality  light  and 
superficial, — mere  feathers  that  float  on  the  surface,  in  comparison  Avith 
those  deeper  causes  of  evil  which  result  from  the  laws  of  nature  and 
the  passions  of  men."  It  is  visionaiy  to  think  that  any  improved  form 
of  government  could  overcome  the  vice  and  misery  which  prevail  as 
checks  to  j^opulation,  and  if  they  could,  they  would  become  the  cause 
of  still  greater  evils.  Mr.  Malthus  can  descant  pleasantly  upon  the 
benefits  and  beauties  of  Christianity,  but  these  benefits  and  beau- 
ties are  reserved  for  those  only  in  the  higher  walks  of  life,  and  if  it 
were  otherwise,  Christianity  must  of  itself  become  a  nuisance.  A  large 
portion  of  the  pages  of  the  "  Essay  on  Population"  are  devoted  to 
speculations  on  the  diminution  of  mortality.  This  would  seem,  at  first 
sight,  against  the  spirit  of  the  whole  treatise.  A  closer  examination 
reveals  the  harmony  of  his  opinions. 

It  wiU  be  found,  that  all  the  plans  of  reducing  mortality  involve 
the  previous  processes  of  thinning  the  ranks  from  which  death  can 
pluck  his  victims.  If  vice  and  misery  can  be  made  to  reduce  the 
numbers  of  the  present  generation  below  the  average,  then  there  must 
be  fewer  deaths  hereafter,  because  fewer  men  to  die.  As  the  world  will 
go  on  to  double  its  population  every  twenty-five  years,  unless  some-- 
thing  is  done  to  prevent  it,  and  as  Mr.  Malthus  feels  it  to  be  rather 
awkward  to  rely  entirely  for  remedy  upon  vice  and  misery,  without, 
at  least,  mentioning  other  remedies,  he  discusses  divers  modes  of  re- 
ducing the  numbers  of  mankind.  As  men  are  coming  into  the  world 
faster  than  they  can  be  provided  for,  it  becomes  a  question  what  is  to 
be  done  with  the  new-comers.  Mr.  Malthus  discovers  the  law  which 
must,  of  necessity,  govern  the  case.  They  come  into  a  world  already 
possessed  and  fully  occupied.  There  is  not  room  for  all, — who  must 
give  way,  the  possessors  or  the  interlopers  ?  It  is  perfectly  clear  that 
those  who  have  the  ground  and  the  property,  "have  a  right  to  do  what 

*  Godwin  on  Population,  chap,  i.  book  vi.  520. 


NOTES.  30i 


they  please  with  their  own."  It  follows,  that  "we  are  bound  in 
justice  and  honour,  formally,  to  disclaim  the  rigid  of  the  poor  to  sup- 
port." This  includes  all  the  poor,  the  maimed,  the  blind,  the  sick, 
and  suflFering  of  every  description.  The  poor-laws  of  England  are,  in 
his  estimation,  "an  evil,  in  comparison  of  which,  the  national  debt, 
with  all  its  magnitude  of  terror,  is  of  little  moment."*  The  law  of 
Mr.  Malthus,  then,  is,  that  men  who  came  into  the  world  must  support 
themselves,  or  those  who  bring  them  in  must  support  them :  if  they 
fail  or  die  in  the  attempt,  they  but  execute  the  laws  of  nature  upon 
themselves;  they  have  no  right  to  obtrude  themselves  upon  the  notice 
of  those  who  are  comfortably  enjoying  the  banquet  of  life,  much  less 
any  right  to  claim  any  portion  from  a  feast  to  which  they  were  not 
invited. 

Mr.  Godwin  quotes  freely  from  the  New  Testament  the  law  of  love 
as  set  forth  in  the  precepts  of  Christ — the  command  to  the  young  man 
who  alleged  he  had  kept  all  the  commandments  from  his  youth  up, 
"  Go  sell  that  thou  hast  and  give  to  the  poor."  On  this,  Godwin 
remarks : — 

"There  is  a  kind  of  oriental  boldness  in  this,  at  least,  considered  as  a  general 
exposition  of  the  moral  law;  for  it  would  be  reasonable  to  answer,  If  it  is  my 
duty  to  render  the  greatest  benefit  to  my  fellow-creatures,  and  if  my  mind  is 
well  prepa,red  to  discharge  this  duty,  it  will,  probably,  be  better  done  by  my 
devoting  my  income  to  this  purpose,  than  by  at  once  divesting  myself  of  the 
Ijrincipal." 

"  But  nothing  can  be  more  clear  than  the  general  tenor  of  revelation  on  this 
question.  By  it  we  are  instructed  that  we  are  stewards,  not  proprietors  of  the 
good  things  of  this  life,  we  are  forbidden  to  pamper  our  appetites  or  our  vanity, 
we  are  commanded  to  be  fellow-workers  with  and  impartial  ministers  of  the 
bountiful  principle  of  nature,  and  we  are  told  that,  when  we  have  done  all,  we 
have  done  nothing  of  which  we  have  any  right  to  boast." 

"  Such  are  the  dictates  of  Christian  revelation,  and  such  is  the  answer  to  Mr. 
Malthus's  position  that  '  every  man  has  a  right  to  do  what  he  will  with  his 
own.' " — Godwin,  Of  Population,  chap.  iii.  book  vi.  p.  5i4. 

"  Thus  stood  the  principles  of  morality,"  remarks  Mr.  Godwin,  after 
making  these  quotations  from  the  teaching  of  Christ,  "before  Mr. 
Malthus  wrote  his  Essay  on  Population."  The  rich  man  believed  in 
them,  though  he  constantly  violated  them  by  wantonly  expending  on 
his   appetites   and  vanity,    sums   for   which  his   conscience  as  con- 

*  Malthus,  Tol.  II.  307.  The  public  debt  was  then  £850,000,000,  and  the  interest 
£i7,000,000.    The  poor-rates  were  £3,000,000. 

26- 


306  NOTES. 


stantly  reproached  him.  This  was  some  check.  The  poor  man 
believed  in  them,  though  he  saw  how  little  they  prevailed  in  the 
world.  He  believed  that  the  unfortunate,  the  disabled,  and  deserving 
poor  had  a  right  to  support,  *'  a  belief  in  which  he  was  borne  out  by 
the  light  of  nature  and  by  the  gospel.  Neither  the  evangelists,  nor 
apostles,  nor  the  Holy  Spirit  that  inspired  them,  were  aware  that  all 
these  maxims  were  subverted  by  the  principle  of  population."  Mr. 
Malthus  has  changed  the  situation  of  the  rich  and  poor.  To  the  poor 
he  has  taught  that,  if  they  receive  any  relief,  they  owe  it  not  to  any 
right,  but  to  what  he  calls  the  spontaneous  charity  and  pure  benevo- 
lence of  the  rich ;  his  opinion  being  that  "  private  charity  almost 
invariably  leads  to  pernicious  consequences,"  and  j)ublic  charity  he 
condemns  without  any  reservation. 

"  To  the  rich  he  has  read  an  important  lesson.  A  great  portion  of  this  class 
of  society  are  sufiiciently  indisposed  to  acts  of  charity,  and  eminently  disposed 
to  the  indulgence  of  their  appetites  and  their  vanity.  But  hitherto  they  had 
fecretly  reproached  themselves  with  this  as  an  offence  against  God  and  man. 
Mr.  Malthus  has  been  the  first  man  to  perform  the  grateful  task  of  reconciling 
their  conduct  and  their  consciences,  and  to  show  them  that  when  they  thought 
they  were  indulging  themselves  in  vice,  they  were  in  reality  conferring  a  most 
eminent  and  praiseworthy  benefit  upon  the  community." — Godwin,  p.  518. 

The    Puseyites. — Another   Phase   of   the    Controversy  about 
Population  and  Pauperise. 

We  have  seen  that  Chalmers  and  Malthus  were  found  side  by  side 
in  their  opposition  to  a  compulsory  provision  for  the  poor,  but,  with 
what  different  ultimate  objects  !  Chalmers,  to  secure  a  kinder  admini- 
stration, and  a  more  effectual  maintenance ;  Malthus,  to  let  their  own 
improvidence  and  misery  bring  them  to  a  rapid  end,  that,  by  thinning 
the  ranks  of  men  now,  the  mortality  hereafter  might  be  diminished. 
We  now  bring  forward  another  collaborator,  from  a  different  school, 
having  his  point  of  agreement,  also,  with  these  anti-champions  of  the 
poor-laws.  A  class  of  religionists  has  become  conspicuous  in  Great 
Britain  since  Malthus  and  Chalmers  wrote,  who,  as  is  generally  the 
case  with  new  sects,  are  divisible  into  two  camps.  The  Puseyites  may 
be  divided  into  the  sincere,  but  deluded  and  mistaken;  and  the  de- 
signing and  unpi-ineipled,  who  are  always  ready  to  lead  any  squadrons 
of  the  ignorant  or  superstitious.  No  drifting  mob  of  humanity  can  go 
long  without  a  leader.  It  may  be  well  feared  that,  as  we  find  many 
good  and  sincere  people  among  the  Puseyites,  they  were  made  so  by 


NOTE  s.  307 


contemplating  Protestantism  as  it  is  displayed  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. The  purer  and  more  conscientious  they  were,  the  greater  their 
detestation  of  her  character  and  doings.  If  too  religious  to  become 
infidels,  and  too  refined  to  become  mere  disciples  of  Christ,  they  natu- 
rally turned  their  faces  towards  Rome.  Among  this  class  of  the  sincere 
and  deluded,  many  writers  have  appeared  whose  pages  breathe  a  spirit 
of  pure  piety,  which  is  destined  to  meet  very  little  sympathy  in  the 
Romish  Church,  to  which  it  is  tending.  The  leaders  who  are  steadily 
guiding  this  deluded  cohort  to  Rome,  no  doubt  sufier  the  expression 
of  such  opinions  among  those  in  their  train,  knowing  that,  once  safe  in 
Popedom,  such  absurd  goodness  will  soon  be  rubbed  ofi"  or  laughed  out 
of  countenance.  The  writer  to  whom  we  are  now  to  refer  is  the  Rev. 
Wm.  Sewell,  B.  D.,  Author  of  Christian  Politics,  and  late  Professor 
of  Moral  PhilosoJIhy  in  the  University  of  Oxford.  lie  plainly  sees  the 
incompatibility  of  the  English  poor-laws  with  Christianity;  he  freely 
admits  that  the  poor  are  the  charge  of  Christians,  and,  with  Chalmers, 
he  sees  no  Avay  of  discharging  that  duty  but  through  the  officials  of  an 
established  church — not  such  as  Chalmers  had  in  his  eye,  nor  such 
as  exists  in  England,  but  a  real  priesthood  after  the  order  of  the  papacy 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  But,  however  antiquated  the  plan  of  Mr.  Sewell 
for  the  care  of  the  poor,  what  he  says  about  them  is  deserving  the 
attention  of  all ;  and  evinces  clearly  that  his  heart  is  in  the  right 
place,  however  wrong  his  head  or  perverted  his  judgment. 

"  Poverty,  in  some  shape  or  other,  is  an  essential  condition  of  political  society, 
and  it  will  increase  in  proportion  with  the  accumulation  of  money ;  because 
capital  has  always  a  tendency  to  drain  and  absorb  into  itself  all  the  lessear 
springs  of  wealth  by  its  command  over  labour,  and  competition  will  drive 
wages  down  to  the  lowest  possible  prices.  But  these  questions,  and  the  whole 
theory  of  national  wealth,  require  to  be  examined  at  length;  and  a  Christian 
political  economy  would  form  a  necessary  appendage  to  Christian  politics,  and 
must  be  reserved  for  such  a  place. 

"  But,  as  a  fact,  the  mass  of  poverty  has  now  swelled  in  this  country  to  a  pitch 
which  threatens  to  overflow  and  devastate  society  itself.  With  a  free  trade  and 
a  manufacturing  system,  it  could  not  be  otherwise.  The  interference  of  the 
legislature  is  demanded.  All  eyes  are  turned  to  its  omnipotent  arm ;  and  it 
proceeds  to  act.  It  gathers  under  its  protection  the  starving,  houseless,  mise- 
rable beings,  whom  the  avarice  of  their  employers  has  called  into  existence  by 
the  demand  for  labour,  and  then  left  them  to  perish  in  the  fluctuations  of  em- 
ployment, or  has  reduced  them  to  the  minimum  of  subsistence,  and  therefore 
to  demoralization  and  despair.  But  it  is  compelled  to  gather  them  in  masses, 
by  broad,  palpable  lines  of  dii^tinff  ion  ;  because  the  state  has  no  delicate  discrimi- 


308  NOTES. 


nating  eyes,  none  of  the  finer  organs  of  prehension  and  selection,  which  are 
required  to  separate  between  the  bad  and  the  good ;  the  industrious  and  the 
idle ;  the  poverty  which  is  a  fault,  from  that  which  is  misfortune  ;  that  which 
demands  consolation,  from  that  which  requires  chastisement ;  the  improving 
from  the  reprobate  and  lost.  Its  seat  of  action  is  too  far  removed  to  penetrate 
into  the  cottage  and  the  hovel,  to  hear  the  tale  of  distress,  and  to  balance  de- 
grees of  indiscretion,  or  suffering,  or  crime.  And  no  instruments  can  it  create 
to  execute  such  a  task,  because  it  can  retain  them  by  pay  only,  and  hired 
servants  can  have  neither  the  feeling  nor  the  zeal  to  attempt  it  well.  There 
is,  indeed,  in  every  parish,  one  or  more  persons,  of  whose  sacred  and  appointed 
functions  it  is  an  especial  part  to  care  for  the  poor — the  servants  of  a  Divine 
Master  who  was  born  in  a  stable  and  laid  in  a  manger;  who,  as  far  as  personal 
enjoyment  is  concerned,  are  themselves  pledged  to  poverty;  whose  office  it  is 
to  watch  over  the  souls  of  those  around  them,  and  therefore  to  discriminate 
characters;  who  can  give  alms  without  degrading  the  receivers;  who  can  add 
to  them  a  double  grace  and  double  comfort  by  words  of  jessing  and  advice ; 
who  are  solemnly  devoted  to  this  work,  whether  the  state  employ  their  services 
or  not ;  and  who,  by  the  ministrations  of  religion,  can  render  even  destitution 
tolerable,  and  raise  even  idleness  and  profligacy  to  an  honest  and  respectable 
industry.    The  clergy  are  the  clergy  for  the  poor."  .... 

"  The  clergy  must  be  set  aside ;  and  the  poor  must  be  fed  and  clothed  by  a 
Board  of  Poor-law  Commissioners,  who  have  no  religious  preference  whatever. 
What  follows?  Destitute  of  the  means  of  discriminating  character,  and  justly 
afraid  of  encouraging  every  kind  of  vice  and  evil  by  an  iudiscriminating 
charity,  they  are  compelled,  I  will  not  say  to  regard  poverty  as  a  crime,  but  to 
deal  with  it  as  if  it  were  such ;  to  reduce  their  alms  down  to  the  lowest  pos- 
sible point  at  which  life  can  be  maintained — life  without  hope,  without  dignity, 
without  enjoyment,  without  possibility  of  improvement — one  stern,  cheerless, 
dreary,  dismal  protraction  of  imprisonment  and  privation,  that  all  may  be  dis- 
couraged from  approaching  it.  Whether  it  be  from  prudence  towards  the  poor, 
or  from  selfish  economy  for  itself,  the  civil  power  cannot  hold  out  any  alms, 
which  are  not  wrung  and  counted  out  like  drops  of  blood,  and  given  with  a 
curse,  the  curse  of  niggardliness  and  reproach,  rather  than  with  a  blessing. 

"But  the  necessity  of  economy  and  privation  renders  another  step  equally 
necessary.  The  home  cannot  be  permitted  to  remain ;  expenses  cannot  be  cur- 
tailed, nor  enjoyments  restricted,  where  the  poor  are  allowed  to  expend  what 
they  receive  in  the  bosom  of  their  families;  and  therefore  they  must  be 
gathered  together  under  one  roof.  Oh,  how  thwarted  nature  and  despised 
truth  will  avenge  themselves  at  last;  and,  if  we  refuse  to  receive  and  honour 
them  in  their  genuine  forms,  will  compel  us  to  fall  down  and  worship  some  de- 
formed idol,  which  we  erect,  without  knowing  it,  after  their  mutilated  imago  ! 
It  is  necessary  that  some  men  be  poor.  It  may  be  good  for  us  aU  to  abandon 
wealth,  even  if  we  are  not  abandoned  by  it.  And  social  life  is  a  blessing  :  and 
for  those  who  have  no  firesides,  it  is  charity  to  provide  a  home,  after  the  model 
of  a  family,  where  they  may  live  under  a  wise  and  merciful  restraint,  and  have 
their  affections  developed  and  their  energies  exercised,  and  even  accomplish 


NOTES.  309 


many  a  grand  and  noble  work,  by  united  labour,  which  cannot  be  attempted 
by  individuals.'  .... 

"  And  in  the  nineteenth  century,  when  we  boast  of  having  receded  so  far 
from  such  ignorance  and  superstition,  that  we  cannot  possibly  relapse  to  it, 
suddenly,  at  the  call  of  the  most  vague  latitudiuarianism,  there  rise  up  on 
every  side  vast  houses  and  refuges  of  the  poor,  maintained  not  by  religious 
alms,  but  by  extorted  taxes ;  and,  containing  in  their  system,  almost  every  cir- 
cumstance which  has  been,  either  wrongly  ridiculed  by  the  bad,  or  justly  con- 
demned by  the  good,  in  the  system  of  monasticism ;  omitting  only  that  which 
commanded  the  reverence  of  all — religion. 

"There  is  poverty,  but  forced,  not  voluntary;  privation  and  fasting,  but 
reluctant  sufferings,  not  self-denying  and  repentant  discipline.  There  is  seclu- 
sion from  the  world  without  contemplation,  or  any  of  the  benefits  of  retirement. 
There  is  endless,  hopeless  fixedness  of  lot,  but  riveted  by  the  denial  of  all 
means  of  improving  the  condition,  not  by  vows,  which,  however  erroneously 
taken,  were  at  least  dignified  by  their  sacredaess.  There  is  labour,  wasted  and 
unproductive ;  society,  without  any  bond  of  union  but  common  degradation 
and  restraint ;  and  dependence  upon  others,  but  on  their  grudging  penurious- 
ness,  not  on  their  benevolence  and  love.  There  is  celibacy,  or  a  compulsory 
disruption  of  the  mari-iage-ties,  but  with  no  holy  thoughts  or  high  aspirations 
to  purify  and  guard  it  from  crime.  There  is  a  breaking  up  of  the  family  and 
the  home,  but  without  creating  any  community  of  love  to  supply  its  place. 
There  is  a  badge  stamped  upon  all  inmates,  separating  them  from  the  rest  of 
their  fellows,  but  neither  holding  up  before  the  world  the  memorial  of  higher 
duties  and  purer  feelings  than  the  world  at  large  permits,  no  giving  dignity 
and  elevation  to  them  who  bear  it,  but  branding  them  with  a  mark  of  infamy, 
as  the  paupers  of  a  poorhouse.  And  there  are  no  duties  to  animate  or  dignify. 
Shame,  but  not  for  sin — fear,  but  not  of  God — inactivity  without  repose — la- 
bour without  hope — ignominy  without  self-reproach — and  punishment  without 
crime;  such  are  the  essential  and  inseparable  characteristics  of  a  system  which 
gathers  together  the  good  and  the  bad  into  one  abode  of  poverty,  and  feeds,  and 
clothes,  and  shelters,  and  employs  them  by  the  hands,  not  of  the  church,  but 
of  the  state. 

"  For  religion  is  excluded ;  or,  if  admitted,  it  can  come  before  them  only  in 
the  rare  and  grudged  ministrations  of  a  single  chaplain ;  set  side  by  side  with 
the  authorized  teaching  of  others,  who  denounce  his  doctrines  as  false,  and 
his  commission  as  invalid.  Heresy  and  schism,  and,  following  on  them,  unbe- 
lief, must  pursue  the  civil  power,  even  into  the  poorhouse.  And  the  last 
refuge  for  its  miserable  inhabitants,  the  belief  in  a  God,  and  the  hopes  of 
heaven,  must  be  shut  against  them  hy  the  distractions  of  doubt  and  contro- 
versy, which  the  state,  instead  of  excluding,  forces  on  them ;  which  it  brings 
into  their  very  home — gathering  the  war  of  words  and  the  strife  of  tongues,  as 
before  round  the  bewildered  child,  so  now  in  the  ear  of  the  ignorant,  the  aged, 
the  sinful,  the  miserable,  the  hax'd  of  heart,  the  bereaved  and  the  friendless, 
the  dull  and  dead  of  hearing  and  understanding,  even  round  the  decay  of 
sickness,  and  the  agonies  of  the  death-bed.     The  state  will  acknowledge  no 


310  NOTES. 


exclusive  truth  in  religion,  and  listen  to  no  controversies,  because  truth  is  full 
of  doubt,  and  controversies  the  destruction  of  peace;  and  therefore  the  mise- 
rable pauper  is  compelled  by  it  to  listen  to  tliem  himself,  and  to  end  where  the 
state  begins,  in  disbelieving  all  that  he  hears."  .... 

"  And  then  turn  to  another  relation  of  domestic  life — that  of  master  and 
servant.  Christianity  set  the  slave  free.  It  struck  off  his  chains,  not  by  any 
violent  infraction  of  an  established  system— not  by  encouraging  that  restless 
and  dangerous  spirit  of  independence  which  refuses  to  own  any  master — not 
by  indulging  in  vain  and  fanatical  clamours  against  an  institution  which  had 
not  been  excluded  even  from  the  divinely  appointed  pohty  of  the  Jews— which 
nature  herself  bad  in  some  degree  adopted— and  the  very  name  of  which  had 
been  assumed  into  the  most  ennobling  relations  of  the  gospel.  She  knew  that 
where  the  spirit  of  Christian  love  is  infused,  there  the  outward  form  of  slavery 
not  only  loses  its  terrors,  but  becomes  capable  of  generating  great  virtues. 
And,  however  capable  of  abuse  may  be  the  power  of  one  human  being  over 
another,  she  knew  that  far  greater  abuses  prevail  in  the  unrestricted  rule  of 
each  man  over  himself.  The  highest  virtues  of  our  nature — patience,  fortitude, 
humility,  faith,  may  be  cherished  and  exercised  in  the  slave,  even  under  the 
harshest  bondage ;  and  mercy,  and  pity,  and  love,  and  self-denial  may  be  prac- 
tised by  the  master  even  when  armed  with  absolute  power.  But  no  virtue 
whatever  can  be  generated  in  the  license  of  self-will,  except  it  be  the  self-com- 
mand taught  to  us  by  bitter  suffering,  and  resolute  to  abandon  its  freedom 
and  to  confine  itself  under  an  external  rule.  If  a  Christian  was  born  a  slave, 
by  the  advice  of  the  apostle  he  was  not  to  seek  to  become  free."  .... 

"  Labour — the  labour  of  human  beings — is  now  an  article  for  the  market. 
It  is  a  subject  of  competition.  It  is  open  to  the  same  rivalry,  and  its  value  is 
fixed  by  the  same  irregular  struggle  between  two  contending  selfishnesses,  as  the 
price  of  a  bale  of  cotton  or  a  loaf  of  bread.  The  hirer  and  hired  have  each 
but  a  single  object:  the  one  to  purchase  as  cheap,  the  other  to  sell  his  toil  as 
dear,  as  possible.  But  in  such  a  conflict  the  master  must  ultimately  be  the 
vanquisher.  The  servant  who  outstands  his  market  must  starve.  And  thus, 
wc  have  seen  the  price  of  the  labour  of  the  poor  throughout  the  kingdom,  in 
almost  every  department,  reduced  to  so  low  a  rate,  that  life  can  scarcely  be 
supported.  And  the  wretched  workman  is  left  to  starve,  throughout  the  vigour 
of  his  life,  in  a  miserable  hovel,  and  to  die  in  a  poorhouse,  while  the  master  is 
apparently  exempt  from  all  responsibility,  as  he  is  untouched  by  any  compas- 
sion, because  the  relation  between  himself  and  his  servant  has  been  stripped 
of  all  moral  obligation  and  religious  character,  and  has  been  reduced  to  a  mere 
act  of  barter.  Faith  and  fear  have  perished  from  it.  And  so  it  must  be,  when 
the  dependence  of  man  upon  man  ceases  to  be  regarded  in  a  religious  light — 
as  a  positive  dispensation  of  Providence ;  when,  instead  of  submitting  to,  and 
acquiescing  in,  the  position  in  which  we  are  placed  at  our  birth,  until  some 
other  call  from  heaven  summon  us  from  it,  we  are  taught  from  our  childhood, 
that  there  is  no  law  or  rule  for  our  temporal  conduct,  but  to  secure,  each  of  us, 
what  we  deem  to  be  our  own  advancement  in  the  world ;  when,  in  this  way,  a 
perpetual  fretting  tever  of  restless  ambition  is  diffused  through  every  class; 


NOTES.  ^ 


ni 


when  the  master,  to  increase  his  gains,  reduoas  his  servants  to  starvation,  and 
the  servant  serves,  not  as  an  act  of  duty,  and  in  the  Lord,  but  simply  to  earn 

his  bread."  .... 

"We  sigh  over  the  imrri?onment  of  the  canary-l.ird,  exclaim  against  the 
cruelty  of  its  oppressor,  unbar  the  doors  of  its  cage  without  a  moment's  delay, 
and  the  poor  bird  claps  its  wings  with  joy,  flutters  into  the  open  air,  regains 
its  liberty,  its  blessed  liberty.— and  the  next  day  is  found  dead  of  cold  and 
hunger.     It  is  not  for  a  Christian  to  argue  in  favour  of  slavery ;  still  less  to 
speak  of  it,  except  with  abhorrence,  when  the  master  abuses  his  power,  and  the 
slave,  instead  of  being  raised  by  him,  by  degrees,  to  the  capability  and  enjoy- 
ment of  his  freedom,  is  rivetted  in  his  chains  for  ever.     Cut  a  Christian  may 
indeed  ask,  whether  the  total  exclusion  of  all  constraint,  of  all  fear,  of  all 
positive  external  obligation  from  the  relation  of  master  and  servant,  has  not 
ended  in  reducing  the  servant  in  this  country  to  a  condition  far  worse— far 
more  abject  and  degraded-far  more  hopeless-far  more  vitiated-th^n  that 
of  any  slave  in  any  period  or  country  of  the  world.     Our  mines,  our  factories, 
our  common  workshops— even  our  farms  and  agricultural  cottages— full  of 
crippled  children  and  deformed  women,  of  famine  and  fever,  of  drunkenness 
and  vice,  of  depraved,  miserable,  hopeless  beings,  doomed  by  their  own  fi-ee 
act— the  free  act  of  a  being  in  the  agony  of  starvation— to  the  severest  toil  in 
darkness,  at  midnight;  deprived  of  rest,  stinted  in  food,  selling  their  children 
to  the  same  misery  with  their  own  for  a  few  shillings,  or  sickening  over  hours 
of  toil  to  earn  their  pence— all  the  horrible  scenes  revealed  by  late  inquiries 
into  the  state  of  our  lower  classes,— what  is  there  in  the  records  of  slavery  to 
be  found  more  heart-breaking,  or  more  appalling,  to  those  who  believe  that 
nations,  like  individuals,  are  visited  by  curses  from  the  Almighty,  and  that 
the  first  curse  denounced  in  His  commandments  is  uttered  against  those  who 
depart,  even  in  the  slightest  degree,  from  His  positive,  external,  revealed  truth, 
and  shape  out  ideas  of  the  Divine  nature  after  their  own  fancy."— pp.  313—328. 


The  subject  of  Humanity  approached  with  timidity  in  England, 

THROUGH  DREAD  OF  UNSETTLING  THE  FOUNDATIONS  OF  THEIR  SYSTEM. 

The  writers  of  England  have  come  slowly  and  reluctantly  to  the 
persuasion  that  something  must  be  done  for  the  working  classes.  All 
the  searching  and  thorough  expositions  of  parliamentary  reports,  in 
which  the  condition  of  the  poor  was  set  forth  with  a  fidelity  of  detail 
and  power  of  truth  have  failed  to  conquer  public  apathy,  for 
the  mass  of  evidence  proved  too  heavy  for  the  public  digestion. 
No  doubt  it  had  some  weight  even  in  England,  by  furnishing  sources 
of  information  to  the  few  who  were  inquiring.  Some  reforms  followed 
in  the  hours  of  labour,  in  the  employment  of  children  in  factories,  and 
females  in  mines.     These  documents  never  touched  the  great  social 


312  NOTES. 

problems  involved.  A  large  class  of  writers  discoursed  abundantly  of 
wealth,  labour,  production,  distribution,  and  other  topics  of  political 
economy,  without  a  kind  thought  or  expression  for  the  men  whose  in- 
dustry furnished  the  subject  of  their  thoughts;  they  treated  of  com- 
merce, and  of  the  productive  powers  of  nations,  without  shedding  a 
ray  of  light  on  the  questions  of  human  welfare  and  happiness  involved 
in  these  discussions.  Wealth  and  industry  are  treated  as  abstractly 
and  as  separately  from  human  well-being,  as  if  the  whole  productive 
l^ower  was  nothing  but  steam-engines  or  water-wheels.  Perhaps  no 
department  of  literary  labom-  has  suffered  more  from  not  being  placed 
on  a  right  basis,  than  this  of  politictll  economy.  Being  a  science,  if 
one  at  all,  pertaining  exclusively  to  human  well-being — to  the  progress 
of  social  economy,  it  was  early  divorced  from  this  basis  and  assumed 
the  shape  of  speculations  upon  commerce,  the  productive  power  of 
labour,  consumption,  rent,  capital,  value,  money,  exchange,  interest, 
banking,  circulation,  credit,  and  similar  topics;  all  which  were  dis- 
cussed theoretically  and  developed  largely,  as  if  imbodying  an  abstract 
science,  apart  from  the  men  whom  they  concerned.  That  there  is  no 
agreement  among  these  writers,  and  that  their  productions  command 
the  assent,  or  even  the  comprehension  of  very  few,  cannot  be  surpris- 
ing, when  it  is  considered  they  are  brain-spun  theories,  and  not  actual 
deductions  from  history  or  experience.  The  reason  why  political 
economy  took  this  shape  was,  doubtless,  chiefly,  because  despotic  rule 
and  priestly  domination  forbade  any  attempt  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  at  erecting  a  system  of  political  economy  with  a  stx'ict  view  to 
the  best  interests  of  men.  The  Church  of  Rome  has  always  assumed  to 
be  infallible  in  matters  of  this  world,  as  well  as  of  those  in  the  world  to 
come;  it  was  not  possible,  therefore,  for  authors  to  shed  light  on  any 
subject  of  which  "the  Church"  chose  to  take  jurisdiction.  Whatever 
ground  "the  Church"  left  was  covered  by  the  various  claims  of  despotic 
governments.  In  England,  where  these  obstacles  did  not  intervene, 
the  incubus  of  the  poor-laws  eflectually  prevented  any  inquiry  into  the 
science  of  human  welfare  which  would  tend  to  disturb  the  existing 
order  of  things.  Under  these  manifold  disadvantages  the  science  of 
political  economy  has  received  its  expansion  ;  and,  as  might  be  expected, 
it  is  neither  consistent  with  itself  nor  adapted  to  its  object.  According 
to  its  literal  expression,  however,  it  has  no  legitimate  end;  it  contem- 
plates the  production,  distribution,  and  consumption  of  wealth;  but 
does  not  inform  us  in  what  way  this  can  be  done  with  aview  to  the  best 
interests,  temporal  and  eternal,  of  the  producer. 


NOTES.  313 


**It  considers  the  lord  of  the  creation  merely  as  a  sensitive  machine,  -with 
eyes,  arms,  hands,  and  fingers  formed  to  manufacture  some  commodity  saleable 
in  the  marts  of  commei*ce ;  merely  an  animated  engine,  to  be  worked  at  the 
will  of  opulence  and  power  for  pecuniary  gain ;  merely  as  a  breathing  mill  or 
animal  automaton,  which  cannot  stand  still  a  moment  for  the  purposes  of  moral 
and  religious  discipline,  without  irreparable  loss  of  time  and  unpardonable 
\faste  of  wealth."* 

But  the  pressure  of  new  ideas  and  the  advancing  tide  of  reform  is 
invading  the  "godless  wisdom"  of  political  economy.  Its  votaries  begin 
to  perceive  they  cannot  much  longer  overlook  man  in  their  speculations. 
The  last  and  best  work  of  its  class,  *'The  Principles  of  Political 
Economy,  by  John  Stuart  Mill,"  thus  steps  out  of  its  way  to  speak 
of  man : — 

"  In  the  details  of  political  economy,  general  views  of  society  and  politics  are 
out  of  place ;  but,  in  the  more  comprehensive,  it  is  impossible  to  exclude  them." 
....  "Considered  in  its  moral  and  social  aspect,  the  state  of  the  labouring 
people  has  lately  been  a  subject  of  much  more  speculation  and  discussion  than 
formerly ;  and  the  opinion,  that  it  is  not  now  what  it  ought  to  be,  has  become 
very  general."  .  .  .  .  "  The  working  classes  have  taken  their  interests  into  their 
own  hands,  and  are  perpetually  showing  that  they  think  the  interests  of  their 
employers  are  not  identical  with  their  own,  but  opposite  to  them."  ....  "The 
principles  of  the  Reformation  have  reached  as  low  down  in  society  as  reading 
and  writing,  and  the  poor  will  no  longer  accept  morals  and  religion  of  other 
people's  prescribing."  .  . .  .  "  The  poor  have  come  out  of  leading-strings  and 
cannot  any  longer  be  governed  or  treated  like  children."  ....  "But  whatever 
advice,  exhortation,  or  guidance  is  held  out  to  the  labouring  classes,  must 
henceforth  be  tendered  to  them  as  equals."  .  .  .  .  "  The  problem  is,  to  obtain  the 
efficiency  and  economy  of  production  on  a  large  scale,  without  dividing  the  pro- 
ducers into  two  parties  with  hostile  interests,  employers  and  employed,  the 
many  who  do  the  work  being  mere  servants  under  the  command  of  the  one 
who  supplies  the  funds,  and  having  no  interest  of  their  own  in  the  enterprise, 
except  to  fulfil  their  contract  and  earn  their  wages."! 

These  are  certainly  remarkable  concessions  to  the  spirit  of  the  age, 
appearing  in  the  pages  of  an  elaborate  work  on  political  economy. 
No  doubt,  the  writer  felt  it  to  be  impossible  for  even  one  of  his  school 
to  be  deaf  to  the  cries  of  humanity ;  and  therefore,  some  twenty  pages, 
in  over  eleven  hundred  and  fifty,  are  devoted  to  the  connection  between 
humanity  and  industry. 

The  progress  of  opinion  shows  that  the  time  cannot  be  distant  when 
the  science  or  system  of  political  economy  Avill  receive  its  just  appre- 


*  V.  Knox's  Works,  vol.  vi.  p.  428.  f  Book  iv.  chap.  vii. 

27 


314  NOTES. 


ciation — when  the  absurdity  of  constrneting  a  system  of  industry  or 
trade  without  any  reference  to  the  men  for  whom  it  is  intended  will  be 
seen  in  its  naked  deformity.  It  must  be  known  soon  that  any  system 
of  social  economy  which  leaves  out  of  view  both  divinity  and  huma- 
nity must  at  first  encounter  resistance  and  reproach,  and  at  last  utter 
failure. 

"  The  system  which  produces  the  happiest  moral  effects  will  be  found,  also, 
most  beneficial  to  the  interest  of  the  individual  and  to  the  general  weaJ.  Upon 
this  basis  the  science  of  political  economy  will  rest  at  last,  when  the  ponderous 
volumes  with  which  it  has  been  overlaid  shall  have  sunk  by  their  own  weight 
into  the  dead  sea  of  oblivion."* 

For  half  a  century,  the  philanthropy  of  Great  Britain  has  been  con- 
gpicuous  in  many  remarkable  manifestations.  The  abolition  of  the 
slave-trade,  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves  in  the  West  Indies,  the  im- 
mense sums  paid  for  the  distribution  of  the  Bible,  and  for  the  support 
of  missionaries,  the  searching  inquiry  made  by  committees  of  parlia- 
ment into  the  condition  of  aU  the  suffering  classes,  all  show  that  the 
public  mind  was  deeply  moved  with  compassion.  There  has,  however, 
been  visible  there  a  great  reluctance  to  enter  into  the  real  questions 
pertaining  to  their  domestic  population.  The  few  could  afford  to  be 
liberal,  while  the  many  were  oppressed.  No  inquiry  could  be  stirred 
in  relation  to  the  permanent  relief  of  the  masses,  which  did  not  point 
to  some  sacrifices  on  the  part  of  the  few.  The  constitution  was  sacred, 
ancient  usages  were  sacred,  property  was  sacred,  personal  rights  were 
sacred :  all  these  and  many  like  barriers  rose  in  the  way  of  any  or- 
ganic changes,  by  which  labour  might  be  increased  and  its  rewards 
enlarged.  The  difficulty  of  overcoming  these  barriers  was  greater,  and 
so  still  remains,  than  even  at  first  sight  strikes  the  inquirer.  Three- 
fourths  of  the  labouring  population  of  Great  Britain  have  been  long 

*sunk  into  a  state  of  utter  poverty  and  dependence  :  they  live  from 
day  to  day,  and  the  least  misfortune  precipitates  them  into  pauperism. 

!  They  have  no  voice  in  fixing  their  wages,  but  are  compelled,  by  sheer 
necessity,  to  labour  for  what  they  can  get.  This  is  a  dreadful  alterna- 
tive for  the  multitudes,  and  shows  how  hopeless  their  condition.  But 
it  is  the  real  foundation  upon  which  the  apparent  strength,  wealth,  and 
grandeur  of  Great  Britain  now  rest.     Her  manufactures  increased  by 

*  Essay  on  the  State  of  the  Poor  and  the  Means  Pursued  by  the  Society  for 
Bettering  their  Condition,  1816,  by  llobert  Southey. 


NOTES.  815 


the  aid  of  steam  and  machinery,  and  this  cheap  labour  can  enter  all 
the  markets  of  the  world  at  a  price  low  enough  to  encounter  any  com- 
petition; her  nobles  and  men  of  capital  can  sport  the  largest  indi- 
vidual incomes  in  the  world,  because  the  labour  that  earns  that  income 
is  inadequately  compensated  ;  the  government  can  with  certainty  raise 
the  largest  revenue  in  the  world,  because  it  is  the  proceeds  of  the  la- 
bour of  her  millions  of  poor,  who  must  toil  incessant!}',  and  give  the 
whole  avails  of  their  incessant  toil  to  the  men  of  capital  who  employ 
them,  receiving  for  their  share  a  pittance  which  imperfectly  sustains 
life.  The  men  of  capital,  having  this  command  of  the  bones  and  sinews 
of  the  poor,  can  afford  to  pay  high  taxes  to  sustain  the  government 
which  sustains  this  system.  The  strength  of  this  system  is  the  ex- 
treme subordination  of  the  labourers,  which  is  only  maintained  by  their 
inability  to  make  any  provision  ahead  to  resist  a  system  which  reduces 
them  to  worse  than  African  bondage.  Now  it  is  clear  that  the  questions 
which  arise  in  any  attempt  to  bring  this  whole  subject  to  the  light  of 
day  are  delicate  and  complicated  in  the  extreme.  It  is  no  wonder  that 
few  have  courage  to  approach  it,  and  that  those  most  interested  in 
maintaining  the  present  order  of  things  can  scarcely  endure  to  have  it 
touched.  It  is  very  evident  that  any  sudden  reform,  however  directed, 
must  be  fatal  in  the  extreme  to  the  present  social  system  of  Great  Bri- 
tain. One  great  error  has  prevailed,  which  must  soonije  dispelled  by 
the  light  which  is  rapidly  gathering  over  the  true  interests  of  hu- 
manity ; — we  cannot  much  longer  shut  our  eyes  to  the  truth  :  we  must 
receive  it  with  full  credit :  if  its  bearings  are  adverse  to  some  cherished 
notions  or  interests,  it  will  become  a  matter  of  conscience,  of  prudence, 
and  consideration,  when  and  how  the  reforms  which  this  truth  dic- 
tates shall  be  accomplished.  We  should  no  longer  fear  light,  though 
we  may  well  pause  and  ponder  in  the  path  of  reform.  We  believe  that 
if  the  truth  in  regard  to  the  social  system  of  Great  Britain  was  brought 
home  to  the  minds  and  consciences  of  the  intelligent  people  of  that  em-, 
pire,  a  quarter  of  a  century  would  not  elapse,  without  exhibiting  an 
entire  renovation  and  political  reformation,  effected  without  violent  re- 
volution or  bloodshed,  and  mainly  by  concessions  made  by  those  now 
holding  positions  of  power  and  the  possession  of  capital.  Let  it  be 
understood,  then,  that  while  no  consideration  should  extinguish  or  re- 
press the  truth,  the  methods  of  reform,  however  effectual,  should  be 
fraught  with  neither  violence,  nor  injustice,  nor  even  dangerous  haste. 
It  is  quite  curious  to  trace  the  cautious  and  slow  approaches  which 
have  been  made  in  Great  Britain,  in  the  last  half-century,  towards  a 


316  NOTES. 


thorougli  consideration  of  the  condition  of  their  labouring  population. 
We  may  readily  imagine  many  grounds  for  this  caution,  all  of  which 
were  magnified  in  the  minds  of  those  whom  they  influenced.  The 
whole  contributed  to  form  a  public  sentiment  so  intensely  conservative 
as  to  be  at  times  ridiculous,  tremblingly  sensitive,  and  often  odious,  if 
not  positively  anti-christian.  All  who  belonged  directly  or  indirectly 
to  the  established  church,  all  who  were  connected  with  the  government, 
executive,  legislative,  or  judicial,  or  expected  or  aimed  to  be  so — all 
who  supposed  their  interests  to  be  deeply  concerned  in  the  great 
questions  touching  the  rights  of  property,  were  alive  to  every  topic 
that  might  remotely  or  directly  aflfect  any  of  these  great  interests.  The 
influence  of  the  church  and  the  government,  and  the  wealth  of  the 
country  were  arrayed  on  the  side  of  the  severest  conservatism,  and 
formed,  together,  a  public  sentiment  which  it  was  not  only  hard  to  stem, 
but  which  those  who  were  educated  in  it  found  it  almost  impossible  to 
think  against.  It  formed  a  shell  which  the  mind  could  not  break 
through.  It  would  be  easy  to  illustrate  it  by  extracts,  but  for  the  space 
it  would  require.  Those  who  desire,  may  find  its  tone  and  polished  sur- 
face well  exemplified  in  the  pages  of  John  Foster,  whose  conception  of 
human  depravity  and  the  hopelessness  of  all  amendment,  was  of  the 
strongest  kind.  According  to  him,  if  the  wickedness  of  the  world  was 
concentrated  in  any  one  country,  it  would  furnish  a  land  of  infernal 
spirits,  except  that  they  would  be  incarnate,  "  which  last,  they  would 
soon,  through  mutual  destruction,  cease  to  be,"  and  thus  become  naked 
spirits  infernal.  He  brands  all  reform  with  ridicule  and  contempt,  and 
says  "  that  revolutions,  great  discoveries,  augmented  science,  and  new 
forms  of  policy  shall  become,  in  eflFect,  what  may  be  denominated  the 
sublime  mechanics  of  depravity."* 

This  essayist  had  a  profound  respect  for  religion,  and  expressly  ex- 
cepted its  ministers  from  the  odium  he  attached  to  the  profession  and 
idea  of  reform ;  but  he  expressly  cautions  them  not  to  hope  for  any 
great  things  from  that;  and  the  utmost  stretch  of  expectation  which  he 
allows  for  the  time  to  come,  is  measured  by  what  has  been  accom- 
plished in  times  past.  Happily  for  the  world,  even  the  profound  es- 
sayist was  obliged,  in  subsequent  editions  of  his  popular  essays,  to 
make  some  acknowledgment  of  advance,  in  the  face  of  his  "  ominous 
conjectures"  and  profound  immovableness. 


*  Letter  IV.  on  the  Application  of  the  Epithet  Bomantic.    John  Foster. 


NOTES.  317 


"We  have  already  seen  that  those  who  most  frequently  attacked  this 
discouraging  philosophy  were  known  as  avowed  infidels.  The  truth  is, 
the  tone  assumed  by  many  of  this  conservative  school  was  such,  that 
very  few  could  venture  to  attack  it  without  risk  of  being  called  infidels. 
Note  the  extreme  care  which  runs  throughout  the  work  entitled,  "Hamp- 
den in  the  XIX.  Century,"  in  which  the  author,  evidently  strongly  im- 
bued with  enlarged  feelings  of  humanity,  and  anxious  to  enter  upon 
the  career  of  investigation  and  reform,  is  but  too  apprehensive  that 
Christianity  and  humanity  cannot  be  reconciled.  Southey,  in  his  "Pro- 
gress of  Society,'"  availing  himself  of  the  conversational  form  in  which 
it  is  written,  takes  both  sides,  the  hopeful  and  hopeless,  and  gives  no 
decided  opinion,  although  his  writings  generally  show  his  sympathiea 
were  stx'ongly  on  the  side  of  humanity.  Dr.  Chalmers  was  bold 
enough  to  break  this  barrier  of  truth,  and,  in  spite  of  all  the  influences 
bearing  on  the  path  of  reform  and  free  expression,  he  not  only  said 
what  he  thought,  but  did  what  he  could.  Hear  him,  in  1819,  address- 
ing an  assemblage  in  Glasgow,  met  on  the  subject  of  the  schools  for 
the  poor,  got  up  and  endowed  by  his  exertions  : 

"  Here  will  I  prophesy,  if  the  world  is  to  stand,  there  will  he  a  great  amelio 
ration  in  the  life  of  general  humanity.  The  labouring  classes  are  destined  to 
attain  a  far  more  secure  place  of  comfort  and  independence  in  the  common- 
wealth than  they  have  ever  yet  occupied ;  and  this  -will  come  about,  not  as  the 
fruit  of  any  victory  gained  on  the  arena  of  angry  and  discordant  politics,  but 
far  more  surely,  aS  the  result  of  growing  virtue  and  intelligence  and  worth 
among  the  labourers  themselves.    I  trust,  the  day  is  coming,  when  humble  life 

will  be  dignified  both  by  leisure  and  literature when  many  a  lettered 

sage,  as  well  as  many  an  enlightened  Christian,  will  he  met  with,  even  in  the 
very  lowest  walks  of  society ;  when  the  elements  of  science  and  philanthropy 
and  high  scholarship,  will  so  ripen  throughout  the  general  mind  of  the 
country,  as  to  exalt  it  prodigiously  above  the  level  of  its  present  character  and 
acquirements."* 

Many  works  have  appeared  within  the  last  ten  years,  which  show 
that  the  question  of  human  well-being  is  falling  by  degrees  within 
the  public  domain.  Apprehension  is  wearing  off,  the  friends  of  hu- 
manity are  growing  bolder.  Christians  are  extending  their  vision  over 
a  wider  field,  and  beginning  to  be  ashamed  of  leaving  the  champion- 
ship of  humanity  so  much  to  infidels.  To  this  result  the  efi"orts  of 
Robert  Hall  and  Thomas  Arnold  contributed  their  full  share :  the  latter 
was,  however,  far  ahead  of  the  former  in  his  appreciation  of  questions 

*  Life  of  Chalmers,  by  the  Rev.  Wm.  Hanna,  2d  vol.  p.  250,  Am.  Ed. 

27* 


318  NOTES. 


involving  the  interests  of  the  human  race.  In  answer  to  the  question, 
*'  What  is  the  progress  spoken  of?"  Arnold  replied,  "  It  is  in  the  appli- 
cation of  Christianity  to  human  things, — the  progress  in  this  is  as 
endless  as  the  progress  from  our  imperfection  to  perfection  can  be."* 

Besides  the  later  works  enumerated  in  our  catalogue  above,  some  of 
which  go  freely  into  the  question  of  the  improvement  of  the  labouring 
classes,  is  one  which  deserves  a  special  mention, — "The  Philosophy  of 
Necessity,  or  the  Law  of  Consequences  as  applicable  to  Mental,  Moral,  and 
Social  Science,  by  Charles  Bray."-\  This  work,  though  far  from  being 
elaborate,  when  the  extent  of  its  scope  is  considered,  is  yet  highly  de- 
serving, as  a  direct  attempt  to  open  up  the  subject  of  the  "science  of 
man,"  and  spread  its  topics  before  the  world  in  logical  order.  "We  are  not 
prepared  to  furnish  an  appreciation  of  a  work  of  so  much  thought,  but 
deem  it  worth  while  to  give  some  indication  of  its  contents. 

"  The  object  of  the  work  is  to  inqtiire  into  the  nature  and  constitution  of  man : 
to  ascertain  his  place  in  creation,  the  object  and  aim  of  his  existence,  and  the 
boundaries  of  his  mind: — 'to  vindicate  the  ways  of  God  to  man,'  by  tracing 
the  law  of  consequences,  and  pointing  to  the  good  of  evil:  to  inquire  what  sanc- 
tion nature  aifords  to  morality,  or  what  obligation  she  lays  us  under  to  regard 
the  happiness  of  others :  to  analyze  the  present  constitution  of  society  :  to  trace 
the  cause  of  its  numerous  evils :  to  suggest  a  remedy,  and  to  show  how  we  may 
best  avail  ourselves  of  our  present  knowledge  and  power,  to  live  together  in 
the  most  happy  manner  possible.''^ 

In  the  body  of  his  work  the  author  classes  his  subject  under  the 
three  main  divisions, — Mental  Science,  Moral  Science,  and  Social 
Science.  Under  the  head  of  Mental  Science,  he  treats  of  the  men- 
tal faculties,  animal  feelings,  social  feelings,  moral  sentiments,  external 
senses,  perceptive  faculties,  SiQ^  reasoning  faculties  ;  the  origin  of  our 
knowledge,  and  the  adajJtatioii  of  the  intellectual  faculties  to  the  exter- 
nal loorld  ;  belief;  truth;  the  connection  of  the  mind  icith  organization  ; 
and  the  subjects  of  materialism,  consciousness,  ideality,  and  associa- 
tion. Under  the  head  of  Moral  Science,  we  have  p)^''^^osophical 
necessity,  the  doctrine  of  which  ho  derived  from  Edwards's  "  Inquiry 
into  Freedom  of  Will,"  and  its  aj^pUcation  to  rcsptonsibility,  praise 
and  blame,  reward  and  punishment,  virtue  and  vice;  the  origin,  ob- 
jects, and  advantages  of  evil ;  pain  considered  as  the  most  effective 


*  Miscellaneous  Works,  Am.  Ed.  p.  441. 

t  In  two  volumes,  8vo.,  London,  1841.  J  Preface. 


NOTES.  319 


guardian  of  that  system  of  organization  upon  xoTiicTi  happiness  depends; 
pain  necessary  as  a  stimulus  to  action  ;  evils  consequent  up)on  the  varie- 
ties of  condition  among  mankind;  death.  Iloralify,  pain  and  pleasure, 
man  in  relation  to  external  objects;  man  in  relation  to  his  felloio-man. 
Under  the  head  of  Social  Science,  he  treats  of  the  present  condition 
of  society,  division  of  society,  annual  income  of  the  kingdom  and  its 
distribution,  income  of  the  working  classes  and  its  expenditure,  con- 
dition of  the  XDorking  classes.  Measures  proposed  for  the  amelioration 
of  the  condition  of  the  people, — governmental  reform,  free-trade,  emi- 
gration, education,  religion.  Causes  of  the  poverty  of  the  working 
classes,  social  reform,  summary,  &e. 

We  mention  this  work  as  a  bold  and  well-sustained  attempt  to  take 
up  the  subject  of  human  welfare  on  its  own  merits.  It  is  readily  seen 
that  the  prevalent  theories  of  political  economy  have  had  little  room 
in  the  mind  of  the  author.  "We  can  easily  perceive  that,  labouring 
under  the  prevailing  error  of  estimating  the  value  and  importance  of 
Christianity  through  the  medium  of  the  conduct  of  Christians,  he  did 
not  comprehend  the  true  relations  of  religion  with  his  subject.  This 
error,  so  common  and  so  fatal  to  the  progress  of  correct  notions,  is 
equivalent  to  ascertaining  the  constitution  and  laws  of  a  nation  by  the 
conduct  of  the  people,  instead  of  comparing  the  conduct  of  a  people 
with  their  written  constitution  and  laws. 

Mr.  Bray  is  the  author  of  a  very  useful  book  as  a  help  in  these 
studies, — "An  Outline  of  the  Various  Social  Systems  and  Communities 
which  have  been  founded  on  the  Prineijile  of  Co-operation :  London, 
1846."  In  this  he  briefly  indicates,  under  more  than  sixty  heads,  some  of 
the  more  prominent  schemes  of  reform  and  co-operation,  from  early  to 
modern  times;  such  as  Crete,  Sparta,  Peru,  Egypt,  the  Essenes,  Early 
Christians,  Iloravians,  Shakers,  Rappites,  Godwin's,  St.  Simon's,  and 
Owen's  Systems,  Poor  Colonies  of  Holland,  Socialism,  Fourierism,  Hof- 
wyl,  Port  Royal:  the  various  Utojnsts, — Plato,  Ilore,  Bacon,  Harring- 
ton. This  indication  of  these  various  plans  is  confined  to  exposition  and 
dwells  not  upon  merits  or  demerits,  but  is  preceded  by  an  introduction 
on  the  general  subjects,  which  contains  a  variety  of  information  on  the 
condition  of  the  working  classes  in  Europe. 

Whilst  we  profess  that  we  are  not  prepared  to  give  any  opinion  on 
the  real  merits  of  Mr.  Bray's  labours,  we  award  him  without  hesitation 
the  praise  of  having  cast  himself  freely  and  unreservedly  into  a  subject 
BO  much  neglected  and  so  much  feared ;  and  of  having  produced  a  work 
which  cannot  fail  to  be  the  precursor  of  very  many  more  useful  than 


320  NOTES. 


his  own.  We  are  free  to  say,  that  we  do  not  feel  the  necessity,  to  ob- 
tain clear  views  on  this  subject,  of  going  beyond  the  "new  command- 
ment" which  is  delivered  to  us  in  the  gospel,  and  fully  believe  that,  if 
Mr.  Bray  had  set  out  from  that  'point,  he  would  have  obtained  clearer 
views  and  a  more  secure  resting-place,  besides  making  far  greater  pro- 
gress. His  imperfect  conception  of  the  Christian  system,  and  hia 
mingling  Christianity  with  the  conduct  of  Christians,  draws  him 
frequently  into  trains  of  remark  highly  exceptionable;  but  their  free- 
dom, their  severity  and  boldness  are  extremely  instructive ;  and  Chris- 
tians should  accept  the  merited  reproof,  even  though  blended  with 
misapprehension  and  error.  He  characterizes  the  conduct  and  teaching 
of  Christians  who  tell  the  poor  and  suffering  that  aU  the  ills  of  this  life 
are  visitations  for  sin,  chastisements  for  the  discipline  of  the  mind  and 
growth  in  grace, — who  separate  religion  entirely  from  any  consider- 
ation of  comfort  in  this  world,  and  postpone  all  happiness  to  the  next 
world, — by  saying  that,  "  in  place  of  the  good  things  which  God  has 
given  so  plenteously,  and  which  he  intends  equally  for  all  his  children, 
they  allow  liberally  to  the  poor ' 2^ost-ohit  bills  on  heaven/'^  as  a  compensa- 
tion for  what  the  wretched  system  of  society  has  taken  from  them  here."f 
Some  works  on  these  subjects  may  have  escaped  our  attention.  Vast 
numbers  of  occasional  pamphlets  have  appeared  on  the  various  questions 
involved,  many  being  of  signal  value  and  merit.  Among  these  smaller 
productions,  one  which  is  well  worthy  of  notice  is — "  The  Labouring 
Classes  of  England,  especially  those  engaged  in  Agi'iculture  and  Manu- 
factures. By  an  Englishman.  Boston,  1847."  This  was  written  by  an 
English  factory  operative,  then  residing  in  this  country,  and  contains 
views  and  details  of  the  highest  interest.  Previous  to  leaving  England, 
he  had  been  employed  by  a  benevolent  nobleman  to  make  inquiries 
respecting  the  condition  of  the  poor,  and  thus  had  facilities  for  obtain- 
ing correct  information.  Alton  Locke  and  other  similar  productions 
must  assist  in  awakening  the  English  mind.  The  recent  exposition 
of  Mr.  Mayhew  in  the  Morning  Chronicle,  which  the  author  is  now 
swelling  into  a  large  work,  richly  illustrated  by  engravings,  has  created 
a  sensation  and  materially  assisted  in  opening  the  way  to  a  more 
general  comprehension  of  facts,  and  to  more  just  views  of  the  rights 
and  wrongs  of  the  poor. 

*  This  is  a  mode  of  payment  adopted  by  expectant  spendthrifts,  who,  being 
unable  or  unwilling  to  pay,  give  bills  or  notes,  at  enormous  interest,  payable 
upon  the  death  of  a  father,  or  some  one  from  whom  a  legacy  is  expected. 

t  Philosophy  of  Necessity,  Yol.  II.  375. 


NOTES.  321 


The  Treatment  which  the  subjects  op  Charity,  Pauperism,  and 
Labour  have  met  in  France.  French  Works  on  these  and 
kindred  topics. 

Our  author  appears  not  to  have  been  fully  aware  that  the  legislation 
of  France,  in  regard  to  the  poor,  for  the  past  three  centuries,  has  many 
features  in  common  with  the  English  legislation,  which  he  so  justly 
condemns.     They  are  far  indeed  from  being  identical,  but  in  France 
severe  epithets  and  harsh  punishments  were  inflicted  for  vagabondage, 
as  well  as  in  England.    Viewed  in  a  merely  political  lighf^in  the 
aspect  of  good  police — the  public  authorities  of  England  and  France 
did  not  originally  greatly  differ ;  but,  in  the  administration  and  public 
sentiment  which  grew  out  of  this  legislation,  a  wide  difference  arose. 
The  French  legislation  became,  in  a  great  measure,  inoperative  in  its 
severe  features.     The  English  are  eminently  a  law-abiding  people; 
they  have  shown  it  as  much  in  the  rigid  and  severe  administration  of 
their  poor-laws  as  in  any  portion  of  their  history.    If  the  law  exists, 
it  must  be  administered :  it  must  not  be  a  dead  letter  through  false 
sympathy  or  any  mere  inefficiency ;  hence  the  administration  of  the 
poor-laws  of  England  revealed  in  its  progress  a  scene  of  brutal  hard- 
ness of  heart,  unchristian  severity,  litigation,  and  low  cunning,  dis- 
graceful to   human   nature   and  revolting  at  once  to  decency  and 
humanity.     Such  a  picture  of  law-abiding  fidelity  in  a  guardian  of  the 
poor  as  that  characterized  in  the  extract  from  Burns's  History  of  the 
Poor-laios,  given  in  a  preceding  page,  (289,)  could  never  find  a  parallel 
in  France.     The  English  system  became,  indeed  not  so  much  from  its 
actual  enactments  as  its  practical  working  in  English  hands,  the  de- 
testation of  Europe.    It  was  regarded  by  many  as  the  climax  of  inhu- 
manity and  the  special  disgrace  of  Protestantism.      When  epithets 
failed  to  brand  adequately  the  horrors  of  this  anti-christian  treatment 
of  the  poor,  it  was  denominated  the  English  system. 

In  our  reference  to  the  English  works  on  the  subject  of  the  poor,  the 
poor-laws,  population,  &c.,  we  have  seen  that,  almost  without  exception, 
they  proceed  upon  the  assumed  ground  that  British  institutions,  reli- 
gious and  political,  were  all  right,  and  that  of  course  no  part  of  the 
mischiefs,  irregularities,  and  misery  which  occurred  under  them  could 
be  charged  to  that  source.  And,  of  course,  the  elements  of  the  subject 
were  never  touched  by  those  who  confined  their  view  to  such  a  narrow 


322  NOTES. 


range.  Before  the  advent  of  Malthus,  the  question  was  chiefly  one  of 
economy.  It  was  simply,  How  shall  we  most  cheaply  feed  and  clothe 
these  increasing  hordes  of  paupers,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  charge  upon 
the  nation  of  having  permitted  them  to  perish  for  want  of  food,  or 
clothing,  or  shelter.  After  the  appearance  of  Malthus,  who  exalted 
inhumanity  into  the  highest  philosophy,  the  question  became,  at  least 
so  far  as  the  Malthusian  doctrines  pervaded  English  literature,  not  how 
to  feed,  and  clothe,  and  lodge  them,  but  merely  how  they  might  be 
permitted  to  perish  with  the  least  shock  to  existing  prejudices.  In 
France,  the  English  system  had  some  friends  and  Malthus  a  few  disci- 
ples, chiefly  among  the  political  economists  of  the  Smith  and  Say 
school.  A  few  professed  themselves  followers  of  Malthus,  like  Dr. 
Chalmers,  without  considering  the  whole  scope  of  his  philosophy,  merely 
because  they  agreed  with  him  in  some  of  his  positions.  Malthus  was 
opposed  to  a  compulsory  provision  for  the  poor,  and  Dr.  Chalmers  and 
many  more,  availing  themselves  of  his  authority  upon  that  point,  per- 
mitted their  names  to  go  abroad  as  endorsers  for  a  man  who  virtually 
repudiated  all  charity,  public,  private,  and  religious.  In  truth,  none 
but  the  strict  political  economists,  a  very  small  class  out  of  England,  ever 
fully  approved  the  doctrines  of  Malthus.  But  even  in  their  pages  the 
Malthusian  jihilosophy  carefully  hides  its  most  revolting  features. 

The  literature  of  charity  and  humanity  in  France,  always  far  in  ad- 
vance of  that  of  England,  is  now  rapidly  swelling  into  large  dimensions. 
As  a  whole,  it  is  not  merely  un tinged  with  the  worst  aspects  of  Malthusi- 
anism,  but  it  partakes  scarcely  at  all  of  that  hard,  dry,  calculating,  spirit 
of  economy,  which  regarded  poorer  classes  as  an  odious  burden,  and 
pauperism  as  a  positive  nuisance,  to  be  endured  only  because  it  could 
not  be  abated.  It  is  not  in  this  spirit  that  the  subject  of  humanity, 
the  science  of  social  well-being,  has  been  treated  in  France.  Whatever 
may  be  some  of  the  special  faults  of  this  department  of  French  litera- 
ture, it  is  so  superior  in  tone,  in  taste,  and  in  method  to  the  equivalent 
branch  of  English  literature,  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  put  them 
in  comparison.  To  any  one  filled  with  earnest  longings  for  human 
welfare,  who  has  explored  the  English  works  on  the  poor,  pauperism, 
and  the  poor-laws,  with  the  view  of  finding  instruction,  helps  for  cha- 
rity, or  hopes  to  cheer  the  sufi'ering  classes,  the  utter  disappointment, 
if  not  loathing,  experienced,  will  find  immediate  relief  by  taking  up 
the  volumes  in  which  French  writers  have  so  kindly,  so  earnestly,  so 
wisely  discussed  questions  bearing  on  human  happiness.  The  con- 
nection of  the  whole  subject  with  Christianity  is  much  more  frequently 


NOTES.  32 


o 


pointed  out  and  explicitly  stated,  and  mucli  more  appreciated  in  France 
than  in  England.  The  mere  question  of  economy  in  feeding  the  poor 
is  scarce  ever  touched  in  France,  and  the  English  mode  of  considering 
that  question  would  not  be  endured  in  France,  where  men  that  labour  for 
a  living,  however  lowly  their  position,  or  suffer  the  severities  of  famine 
and  nakedness,  for  want  of  labour,  are  regarded  as  objects  of  the  highest 
interest,  social,  political,  and  religious.  They  cannot  endure  in  France 
that  the  chief  question  in  regard  to  such  men  shall  be  what  it  may 
cost  to  feed  and  keep  them,  and  whether  the  job  of  keeping  them 
alive,  or  saving  appearances  if  they  are  suffered  to  die,  shall  be  under- 
taken by  public  authorities  at  the  expense  of  a  forced  contribution,  or 
be  left  to  the  spontaneous  offerings  of  private  charity  or  to  the  parish 
oiScers  of  an  established  church.  In  France,  the  whole  question  is  as 
open  as  the  day,  and  every  topic  is  brought  forward  without  reserve, 
and  discussed  with  a  freedom  unknown  in  any  other  country  in  the 
world,  and  with  an  earnestness  and  ability  equally  unsurpassed.  It 
would  be  impossible  to  classify  the  numerous  productions  of  the  French 
press  or  to  point  out  the  various  schools  to  which  they  belong,  as  they 
range  from  the  strictest  conservatism  through  every  variety  of  opinion, 
down  to  the  wildest  and  absurdest  schemes  a  diseased  fancy  or  per- 
verted intellect  can  create.  To  give  some  idea  of  the  richness  of  the 
field,  we  furnish  a  catalogue,  from  which  we  shall  select  a  few  on  the 
subjects  of  CHARITY,  PAUPERISM,  and  labour,  to  be  specially  men- 
tioned and  their  contents  noted  as  specimens  of  this  literature,  and  as 
indicating  to  those  inclined  to  such  studies  where  they  may  find  a  rich 
and  profitable  field  of  study. 

A  Catalogue  of  French  Works  on  Christian  Charity,  Public 
AND  Private  Charity,  Pauperism,  Population,  and  Labour. 

Belly,  Jehan  de.    (Euvres  de  Misericorde  envers  les  Pauvres, Paris,    1572 

Exhortation  to  the  People  of  France  touching  works  of  Mercy  to  the 
Poor. 

Le  Maistre,  Ant.    L' Aumosne  Chrcstienne,  2  vols.  12mo. 1651 

Christian  Alms,  or  the  Tradition  of  the  Church  touching  Charity  to 
the  Poor,  collected  from  the  Holy  Scriptures  and  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Fathers. 

Thiers,  J.  B.    L'Avocat  des  Pauvres,  12mo. 1679 

The  Advocate  of  the  Poor,  showing  the  Obligations  of  the  Church 
Authorities  to  make  a  good  use  of  the  Church  Funds  in  aid  of 
the  Poor. 


QC 


24  NOTES. 


Vemage  et  Paccori.    Abrege  de  la  Loi  Nouvelle,  12mo. 1713 

Summary  of  the  whole  Law— the  love  of  God  and  of  our  Neighbour, 
with  a  Treatise  upon  Charity  according  to  St.  Paul. 
Saint  Pierre,  Abbe  de.    Memoire  sur  les  Pauvres,  8vo. 1721 

A  Memoir  upon  the  Begging  Poor  and  the  Means  of  Relieving  them. 
Morin,  Henri.    Ilistoire  Critique  de  la  Pauvrete. 1723 

Critical  History  of  Poverty. 

Forbonnais.    Memoir  upon  Beggary. • 1722 

Maugras,  J.  F.    Lettres  sur  I'AumOne,  12mo. 1726 

A  Consultation  upon  Alms,  in  which  is  established  the  Necessity  of 
Alms  and  Rules  for  Giving,  with  a  Refutation  of  the  Pretexts  for 
Refusing  them. 
Duguet,  J.  J.    Charite,  12mo. 1728 

Explanation  of  the  Characteristics  of  Charity  as  given  by  St.  Paul. 
Le  Pelletier,  C.    Traite  de  la  Charite,  12mo. 1729 

Love  to  our  Neighbour,  and  its  True  Character. 
Pallu,  M.    De  la  Charite,  12mo. 1742 

Love  of  our  Neighbour;  its  Motives,  its  Duties,  and  its  Opposite  Defects. 
Morrice,  D.    Proposition  pour  Secours  des  Pauvres 1753 

Proposition  for  Efficaciously  Aiding  the  Poor. 
De  la  Morandiere.     Police  sur  les  Mendiants,  12mo. 1764 

Police  for  Beggars  and  Vagabonds. 
Faiguet,  J.    L'Ami  des  Pauvres,  12mo. 1768 

The  Friend  of  the  Poor,  or  Political  Economy. 
Beaudeau,  N.    Idees  d'un  Citoyen,  &c.,  2  vols.  8vo. 1765 

Opinions  of  a  Citizen  upon  the  Wants,  the  Rights,  and  the  Duties  of 
the  Poor. 
Mery  de  la  Canorgue,  Abbe.    L'Ami  de  ceux  qui  n'en  ont  point 1767 

The  Friend  of  the  Friendless. 

Moheau.    Considerations  sur  la  Population  de  la  France,  8vo. 1778 

Malvaux.    Mendicity  en  France,  &c.,  8vo. 1780 

A  Mode  of  Stopping  Beggary  in  France,  by  making  the  beggars  use- 
ful to  the  public  without  making  them  unhappy. 

The  title  of  this  work  was  the  subject  proposed  for  a  prize  by  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1777.  A  large  volume  of  the  essays,  offered  in 
this  competition,  was  published  in  1799. 

Percy  et  Willaume.    Memoire,  &c. 1780 

A  memoir  crowned  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  of  Macon,  upon  this 
question  :  "  The  Ancients — had  they  public  establishments  for  aid  of 
indigent,  of  orphans,  or  foundlings,  the  sick,  the  wounded ;  and  if  not, 
what  had  they  in  their  place  ?" 

Reymond,  Abbe  II.    Droit  des  Pauvres,  8vo. 1781 

The  Rights  of  the  Poor. 


NOTES.  325 


Dupont  de  Nemours.    Id6es  sur  les  Secours,  8vo. 1786 

Ideas  upon  the  Succour  to  be  given  to  the  Poor  in  Large  Towns. 

Clochar.    Slcndicite,  8vo. 1790 

Method  of  Stopping  Beggary. 

Montaignac.    Reflexions  sur  la  Mendicitt^,  12mo. 1790 

Bussy  de  Ilenrion.    De  la  Destruction  de  la  Mendicite,  8to. 1790 

Volland.   Memoire  sur  Ics  Moyens  de  detruire  la  Mendicite  en  France,  4to.    1790 

Desmousseaux.    De  la  Bienfaisance  Nationale 

Brogiran.    Memoire  sur  les  Moyens  de  bannir  Mendicite,  8vo. 1791 

Banncfroy,    Memoires  sur  la  Mendicite,  12mo. 1791 

Bonnefoy.    Memoire  sur  la  Blendicite,  4to. 1791 

La  Rochefoucauld,  Liancourt.     Plan  pour  I'Extinction  de  la  Mendi- 
cite, 8vo. 1790 

Plan  for  the  Extinction  of  Mendicity,  presented  to  the  National  As- 
sembly, and  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Mendicity  upon  the 
Hospital  of  Paris. 
Dillon.    Memoires  sur  les  Etablissements  de' Bienfaisance,  12mo. 

Memoirs  upon  Public  Houses  of  Charity,  of  Labour,  of  Correction,  in 
a  political  and  commercial  aspect. 
Vasco.    Memoires  sur  les  Causes  de  Mendicite  et  les  Moyens  de  sup- 
primer.  1799 

Bosc.    Essai  sur  les  Moyens  de  detruire  Mendicite,  Svo. 1800 

Eriedlander.    Histoire  des  Etablissements  relatifs  aux  Pauvres, 1821 

Reprinted  in  Paris  in  1822,  with  a  catalogue  of  works  published  in 
Germany  upon  the  Poor. 

Doe.    Traite  sur  I'lndigence,  Svo. 1805 

A  Treatise  upon  Indigence,  its  principal  Causes  and  the  Means  of 
arresting  it. 

Prestot.    Memoire  sur  I'lndigence,  12mo. 1805 

Upon  Indigence,  the  Means  of  Curing  it  without  a  return  of  Beggary. 

Guignon,  Laourens.    Des  Depots  de  Mendicity,  8vo. 1814 

Houses  for  the  Poor,  and  their  Influence  on  Public  AYelfare. 

Aubcrt  de  Titry.    Recherches  sur  les  Vrais  Causes  de  la  Misere,  8to. 1815 

Researches  upon  the  Real  Causes  of  Misery  and  of  Happiness. 
Mansion,  H.    Essai  sur  I'Extinction  de  la  Mendicite  en  France,  12mo.  •  •     1820 

Gerando,  De.    Le  Visiteur  du  Pauvre,  Svo. 1820 

Bonnefons,  C.  R.  P.    Le  Chretien  Charitable,  18mo. 

The  Charitable  Christian  who  visits  the  Poor,  those  who  are  in  prison, 
and  those  who  are  sick. 
Dupin,  Baron.    Histoire  de  I'Administration  des  Secours  Publics,  Svo.  •  •     1821 

Poliniere,  A.  P.    Memoire  sur  la  Question  suivante,  Svo. 1821 

Memoir  upon  this  Question:  "What  are  the  respective  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  Public  Hospitals  for  the  indigent  sick,  and  of 
aid  at  their  domicile ;  and  what  ameliorations  may  be  properly  in- 
troduced in  this  respect?" 

Soviche,  J.    Dus  IlOpitaux  et  des  Secours  a  Domicile,  Svo. 1S22 

28 


326  NOTES. 


Fod^re,  P.  E.    Essai  Historique  sur  la  Pauvrete  des  Nations,  8to. 1825 

Essay,  Historical  and  Moral,  upon  the  Poverty  of  Nations,  Popula- 
tion, Mendicity,  and  Foundlings. 
Ducpetiaux.    Traite  des  Moyens  de  soulageret  de  prevenir  Tlndigence,  Sto.    1832 

Morogues,  De.    Du  Pauperisme,  Svo. 1834 

Pauperism  and  Mendicity,  and  the  Means  of  preventing  their  Dread- 
ful Effects. 

Sismondi,  De.    Du  Sort  des  Ouvriers  dans  les  Manufactures, 1834 

Villeneuve    Bargemont,   De.      De    I'Economie    Politique    Chretienne, 

3  vols.  Svo. 1834 

Bouvier  Dumoulin.    Des  Causes  du  Malaise 1834 

The  Causes  of  the  Uneasiness  of  the  French  Population. 

Beres,  E.    Des  Classes  Ouvrieres,  Svo. -•  •    1835 

The  Working  Classes — the  means  of  ameliorating  their  lot  in  point 
of  their  moral  and  physical  -well-being. 

Berger.    Du  Pauperisme  dans  le  Canton  de  Vaud 1836 

Vincens,  Emilc.    De  I'Organization  Sociale 1836 

Duchatel,  T.      Consideration  de  I'Economie  Politique  sur  la  Bienfai- 

sance,  8to. ■■ 1829 

Considerations  upon  the  Political  Economy  of  Beneficence  or  Charity, 
in  its  relation  with  the  moral  condition  and  the  well-being  of  the 
lower  classes  of  society. 

Naville,  F.  M.  L.    De  la  Charite  Legale,  2  vols.  Svo. 1836 

Of  Legal  Charity,  its  causes  and  effects ;  and  particularly  of  Houses 
of  Labour,  and  of  the  Prevention  of  Begging. 

This  author  was  a  minister  of  the  gospel  at  Geneva. 

Schmidt.    Recherches  sur  la  Population,  les  Salaries,  Pauperisme 1836 

Pignot.    Projets  concernant  la  Salubrite  Publiiiue,  8to. 1837 

Projects  in  reference  to  Public  Health  and  the  actual  Extinction  of 
Mendicity. 
Esterno,  D'.    De  la  Misere,  de  ses  Causes,  de  ses  Effets,  de  ses  RemS- 

des,  Svo. 1842 

Du  Puynode,  G.    Des  Lois  du  Travail,  &c.,  Svo. 

Of  the  Laws  of  Labour,  and  of  the  Working  Classes. 
Labourt.    Rcchcrchcs  sur  I'lntemperance,  Svo. 

Researches,  Historical  and  Statistical,  upon  the  Intemperance  of  the 
Working  Classes,  and  upon  Foundlings. 
Guyard,  Robert.    Essai  sur  I'Etat  du  Pauperisme  en  France,  et  sur  les 

Moyens  d'y  remedier,  Svo. 
Chirat,  Abbe.    Guide  de  la  Charite,  12mo. 

The  Way  of  being  Merciful  with  Advantage. 

Naudet.    Des  Secours  Publics  chez  les  Remains 1838 

D Memoire  couronne  par  I'Atheuee  de  Paris 1838 

Upon  this  question — '"What  should  be  the  organization  of  labour 
the  best  fitted  to  augment  the  happiuess  of  the  Working  Classes  ?" 


NOTES.  327 


Fregier.    Dcs  Classes  Dangorouses,  2  vols.  8vo. 1839 

Of  the  Dangerous  Classes  of  the  Populatiou,  and  the  means  of  making 
them  better. 

Gerando,  De.    De  la  Bienfaisauce  Publique,  4  vols.  8vo. 1839 

A  Treatise  upon  Public  Charity,  with  a  full  view  of  Indigence  in  its 
relations  with  social  economy,  containing  the  histoiyand  statistics 
of  charitable  establishments  in  France  and  in  other  countries. 

Desvaux,    De  I'Amelioration  du  Sort  de  la  Classe  Pauvre,  8to. 1839 

The  Amelioration  of  the  Lot  of  the  Poor ;  or,  of  Charity  in  its  Prin- 
ciple, its  Application,  and  its  Influence. 
Cochut,  A.    Du  Sort  des  Classes  Souffrantes. 

Cerf  beer.  A.  E.    Rapport  au  Ministre  de  1'  Interieur,  4to. 1840 

Keport  upon  the  different  hospitals,  hospices,  establishments    and 
societies  of  beneficence,  and  upon  mendicity,  in  the  States  of  Sar- 
dinia, Lombardy,  A'^enice,  Rome,  Parma,  Placentia,  and  Slodena. 
Yillerme.     Tableaux  de  I'Etat  Physique  et  Moral  des  Ouvriers,  2  vols.  8vo.    1840 
Picture  of  the  Moral  and  Physical  Condition  of  the  Workmen  em- 
ployed in  the  Cotton,  Woollen,  and  Silk  Manufactories. 

Buret,  E.    Do  la  Misere,  2  vols.  8vo. 1841 

Of  the  Misery  of  the  Working  Classes  in  France  and  England. 

Tarbe,  Prosper.     Travail  et  Salaire,  8vo. ; 1841 

Labour  and  Wages. 

Chamborant,  De.     Du  Pauperisme,  8vo. 1842 

Of  Pauperism  as  it  was  in  antiquity  and  as  it  is  now :  of  the  Remedies 
which  have  been  applied,  and  those  proper  to  be  applied  at  the 
present  day. 
Loudon,  Ch.    Solution   du  Probleme  de  la  Population  et  des  Subsist- 

ances,  8vo. 1842 

Dutouquet.    De  la  Condition  des  Classes  Pauvres  k  la  Campagne,  8vo. 
Monaco,  Le  Prince  de.    Du  Pauperisme  en  France,  et  des  Moyens  de  la 

detrviire,  8vo. 1043 

Watteville,  A.  de.    La  Legislation  Charitable,  8vo. 1843 

"  Statistiques  des  Etablissements  de  Bienfaisauce, 1843 

Napoleon,  Le  Prince  Louis.    (The  President  of  France.)    De  I'Extinction 

du  Pauperisme, 1844 

D.  S..  Le  Prince.    Aper^u  sur  la  Condition  des  Classes  Ouvrieres 1844 

Lamothe,  L.     Etudes  sur  la  Legislation  Charitable,  8vo. 1845 

Remarks  upon  Reforms,  financial  and  administrative,  in  Establish- 
ments of  Charity. 
Lamothe,  L.    Nouvelles  Etudes  sur  la  Legislation  Charitable,  8vo. 1850 

A  very  tborougli  and  able  work  upon  the  administration  of  Public 
Charity. 

Annales  de  la  CharitS.    A  monthly  journal,  commenced  in  1850. 

Debrie,  J.    Des  Proletaires,  Svo. 1846 

The  Poor,  and  the  Amelioration  of  their  Condition. 


328  NOTES. 


Marchand,  D'A.    Du  Panperisme,  8vo. 1845 

Marbeau.    Etudes  sur  L'Economie  Sociale,  8vo. 18i5 

Fix,  Theodore.    Observations  sur  I'Etat  des  Classes  Ouvridres 1846 

Gamier,  J.     Sur  rAssoeiation,  rEconomio  Politique,  et  la  Misere 1S4G 

Goujjenot  des  Mousseaux.    Des  Troletaires 1846 

The  Necessity  and  Means  of  RelieTing  the  Poor. 

Clement,  A.    Reeherches  sur  les  Causes  de  I'lndigence,  8vo. 1846 

Gasparin,  Comtcsse  Agenor  de.    II  y  a  des  Pauvres  a  Paris — et  ailleurs. 

There  are  Poor  in  Paris — and  elsewhere. 

The  authoress  is  a  protestant  lady,  well  known  for  her  benevolence 
and  intelligence.     The  count  is  eqxxally  well  and  favourahly  known. 

Du  Pont  White.    Essai  sur  los  Relations  du  Travail  et  du  Capital,  8vo.    1846 
Tivens,  Le  Alcompte.    Lettre  sur  la  Mendicity,  addressee  a  la  Reine,  8vo.    1846 

Fayet,  P.    Progres  de  la  Charite  en  France 1846 

Lourde,  Th.    Essai  sur  I'Extinction  de  la  Mendicitfe • 1847 

Dufau,  P.  F.    Lettres  a  une  Dame  sur  la  Charite,  8vo. 1847 

Paulmier,  Ch.    De  la  Misere  et  de  la  Mendicite. 

Marbeau,  F.    Du  Pauperisme  en  France 1847 

Pauperism  in  France,  and  the  Remedies ;  or,  the  Principles  of  Chari- 
table Economy. 

Egrou,  A.    Le  Livre  du  Pauvre,  18mo. 1847 

The  Book  of  the  Poor. 

Farelle,  F.  de  la.    Du  Progres  Social,  2  vols.  8vo. 1839 

Social  Progress,  ■with  a  view  to  the  advantage  of  the  intermediate 
classes  of  society,  not  the  rich  nor  the  indigent. 

"  "        Plan  d'une  Reorganization  Disciplinaire,  &c.,  8vo. 1847 

Plan  for  a  Disciplinary  Arrangement  of  the  Working  Classes  in 
France. 

These  are  together  in  one  volume,  in  the  edition  of  1847'. 

Gerando,  De.    Des  Progres  de  I'lndustrie,  18mo. 1847 

The  Progress  of  Industry  in  relation  to  the  physical  and  moral  well- 
being  of  the  Working  Classes. 

Chevalier,  M.    Lettres  sur  I'Organization  du  Travail 1848 

Letters  upon  the  Organization  of  Labour,  upon  the  Chief  Causes  of 
Misery,  and  upon  the  Remedies  proposed. 

Du  Puynode,  G.    Lettres  sur  le  Proletariat,  12mo. 1848 

Doisy,  Martin.    Ilistoire  de  la  Charite,  8vo. 1848 

History  of  Charity  during  the  first  four  centuries  of  the  Christian 
Era,  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  history  of  Public  Charity 
in  modern  times. 

Tailhaud.    Ilistoire  Philosophique  de  la  Rienfaisance,  8vo. 1848 

Pelletier.    Solution  du  Probleme  de  la  Mist-rc, 1848 

Faucher,  L6on.     Droit  au  Travail 1848 

The  Right  to  Labour. 


NOTES.  329 


Morcau,  Christophe.    Du  Droit  a  I'Oisivete,  8vo. 1849 

Of  the  Right  to  Idleness,  and  the  Organization  of  Slave-Labour  in 
Greece  and  Rome. 

Ilollet  et  Saint  Genez.    De  I'Assistance  Publique,  Svo. 1849 

Cador,  L.    Subsistances  et  Population,  Svo. 1850 

Blanqui,  Aine.    Des  Classes  Ouvrieres  en  France  in  1848,  2  vols.  18mo. 

Villerme.    Des  Associations  Ouvrieres, 1849 

Melun,  A.     De  I'lntervention  de  la  Societe  pour  Prevenir  et  Soulager 

la  Mis^re 1849 

Girardin.     Le  Droit  au  Travail 1849 

Gamier.     Le  Droit  au  Travail 1849 

Le  Bastier,  J.    De  I'Organization  de  I'Assistance  Publique 1849 

"Watteville,  A  de.     Le  Patrimoine  des  Pauvres. 

Assemblee  Nationale.     Droit  au  Travail,  Svo. 1850 

A  Debate  of  many  days,  in  which  the  most  enlightened  men  of 
France,  of  all  shades  of  opinion,  participated. 

Chevallier,  M.    Question  des  Travailleurs,  ISmo. 1848 

The  Amelioration  of  the  Lot  of  Labourers,  Wages,  and  Organization 
of  Labour. 
"Wolowski.    De  I'Organization  du  Travail,  Svo. 

Montaigu.     Organization  du  Travail,  Svo. 1848 

Garnier,  J.    Etudes  sur  les  Profits  et  les  Salaircs. 

Clement,  A.     Des  Nouvelles  Idees  de  Reformes  Industrielles,  with  re- 
marks upon  Louis  Blanc's  work  on  the  Organization  of  Labour  •  •     1848 

Gratiot,  A.    Organisez  le  Travail,  ne  le  Desorganisez  pas. 1848 

Lamothe.    Dos  Moyens  d'Ameliorer  le  Sort  de  la  Classe  Ouvriere. 

By  a  continued  development  of  charitable  institutions. 
Daussigny.     De  I'Organization  du  Travail. 
Manufacturing  Associations. 

Cousin,  V.    Justice  et  Charite,  18mo. 1848 

The  Limits  of  Justice  and  Charity,  the  right  to  labour,  and  the  mutual 
rights  and  duties  of  individuals. 
Jandeau,  F.    Amelioration  du  Sort  des  Travailleurs,  Svo. 

Organic  Laws  of  Labour. 
Aime,  Berthe-Pommery.    Petit  Ecrit  sur  une  Grande  Question,  12mo. 

The  Amelioration  of  the  Condition  of  the  Working  Classes. 
Barsalon,  G.    Etudes  sur  le  Passe  et  I'Avenir,  16mo. 

Of  the  Industrial  Operatives. 
Suthcr,  A.    Essai  sur  TAmelioration  du  Sort  des  Classes  Laborieuses. 

Indication  of  a  Better  System  of  Rural  Economy. 
Merson,  E.    De  la  Situation  des  Classes  Ouvrieres  en  France,  12mo. 
Druhen,  J.    Des  Causes  de  Plndigence,  et  des  Moyens  d'y  Remedier,  Svo.    1850 
Nesmond,  P.  C.    Essai  sur  les  Rapports,  &c.,  12mo. 

The  Relations  which  exist  between  Property,  Labour,  Credit,  and 
Misery,  and  ujon  the  important  consequences  to  be  deduced  from 
a  knowledge  of  these  relations. 

28* 


330  NOTES. 


Grancoin,  Ch.    Des  Subsistance?,  ct  des  Moyens  de  les  mettre  en  Equi- 

libre  avcc  la  Population.  8vo. 1850 

Audiganne,  A.    Les  Ouvriers  en  Famille,  18mo. 

Conversations  upon  the  duties  and  rights  of  the  labourer  in  the  dif- 
ferent relations  of  his  laborious  life. 

. De  rOrganization  du  Travail,  12mo. 1844 

Leclaire.   De  la  Misere,  et  des  Moyens  h  Employer  pour  la  faire  cesser,  8vo.    1850 
Girardin,  E.  de.    L' Abolition  de  la  Misere  par  I'Elevation  des  Salaires. 

Bernard.    Plan  d'  Organization  du  Travail 1851 

Addressed  to  the  friends  of  true  order,  justice,  and  family,  of  pro- 
perty and  religion ;  in  a  word,  of  the  Republic ;  by  labourers  and 
merchants. 

Moreau,  Christophe.    Du  Probleme  de  la  Misere,  3  vols.  8vo. 1851 

Of  the  Problem  of  Misery,  and  its  Solution,  among  people  ancient 
and  modern.  The  first  volume  is  devoted  to  paganism,  the  second 
to  the  Mosaic  period  and  the  Christian  dispensation  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  third  to  the  principal  states  of  Europe,  and  specially  to 
France. 

Fregier.    Solution  Nouvelle  du  Probleme  de  la  Misere,  12mo. 1851 

A  Practical  Method  of  Ameliorating  the  Condition  of  the  Operatives 
in  our  Manufactories. 
Mohler,  E.    Sur  I'Amelioration  du  Sort  des  Travailleurs. 

Of  the  Association  of  Workmen.    The  Necessity  of  a  new  Industrial 
Inquest,  and  a  Model  of  an  Institution  of  Succour  and  Retreat. 
Cenac-Moncaut,  M.  J.    Elements  d'Economie  Sociale  et  d'Organization 

du  Travail,  12mo. 1848 

Depasse,  E.    Considerations,  Ac,  12mo. 

Considerations  upon  Asylums,  and  their  Influence  upon  the  Future 
Condition  of  the  Poor. 

Allard,  M.    Des  Moyens  d'Ameliorer  le  Sort  des  Travailleurs 1848 

The  Means  of  Improving  the  Condition  of  Labourers,  manufacturing 

and  agricultural,  with  a  Projet  for  a  Declaration  of  their  Rights 

and  Duties  and  a  Projd  of  a  Law  for  the  Amelioration  of  their 

Condition. 

Luro,  V.    Du  Travail  ct  de  I'Organization  des  Industries  dans  Liborte, 

18mo. 1848 

De  Bausset-Roquefort.    Devoirs,  Droits,  Assistance,  12mo 1849 

Duties,  Rights,  Assistance  in  the  light  of  Christianity,  Liberty,  and 
Education. 

Ducellicr,  F.    Essais  sur  quelques  Questions  Sociales,  12mo. 1848 

Garcin,  A.    L'Assistance  Publique,  18mo. 1849 

Public  Assistance — what  it  is,  what  it  ought  to  be ;  with  a  Manual  for 
Visitors  of  the  Poor  and  those  who  exercise  Private  Charity. 
Leclerc,  L.    Caisse  d'Epargne  et  de  Prevoyance,  ISmo. 

Letters  to  a  Young  Labourer  upon  the  subjects  of  Indigence,  In- 
dustry, and  Savings. 


NOTES.  331 


Marchal,  L.    Question  dcs  Subsistanccs,  12ino. 1849 

To  this  little  volume  was  awarded  a  gold  medal,  as  a  prize  for  the 
best  essay  on  this  subject,  by  a  charitable  association.  The  subject 
is  treated  in  its  bearing  on  the  interests  of  the  poor. 

Scribe,  P.  A.  A.    Question  du  Travail,  Moyens,  Pratique  Sociaux,  18mo. 

De  la  Question  du  Travail,  12mo. 1S48 

A  Solution,  proposed  by  a  Labourer  without  "Work. 

De  la  Richesse  et  dcs  Imports,  ou  Usure  et  Travail, 

18mo. IS-'^O 

De  la  Liberie  en  general,  8 vo. 1849 

Of  Liberty  in  general,  of  the  Liberty  of  Labour,  and  the  means  of 

assuring  the  physical  and  moral  well-being  of  the  \yorking  Classes. 
Ramon,  De  la  Sagra.    Organization  du  Travail,  8yo. 1848 

Questions  preliminary  to  the  examination  of  that  problem. 

— — Le  Probleme  de  I'Orgaiiization  du  Travail,  8vo.  •  •     1848 

Rijleveld,  J.  C.    De  I'Organization  du  Travail  par  un  meilleur  systeme. 

A  better  system  of  the  Organization  of  Labour. 
O'Connor,  A.  C.    Le  Monopole  Cause  de  tons  les  Manx. 

Monopoly  the  cause  of  all  the  distress. 

This  work,  published  in  Paris  in  1849,  in  3  large  volumes,  8vo,  by  a 
General  of  Division  in  the  French  Army,  is  devoted  to  the  interests  of 
the  poor.     It  is  specially  severe  upon  the  EiujUsh  system. 

Sauriac,  X.    Un  Systeme  d'Organization  Sociale,  8vo.,  Paris 1850 

Barrau,  Th.  II.    Conseils  aux  Ouvriers,  12mo.,  Paris 1850 

Coun.sels  to  "Workmen  on  the  means  of  being  happy. 
Dupin,  G.    Enseignement  et  Sort  des  Ouvriers,  18mo.,  Paris 1848 

Instruction  and  fate  of  labourers. 
Marbeau,  F.    De  1'  Indigence  el  des  Secours,  18mo.,  Paris 1850 

Indigence  and  its  succour. 

De  Cormenin,  M.    Des  Salles  d'Asile  en  Italic,  18mo.,  Paris 1848 

Vcc,  M.    Du  Paupcrisme  et  des  Secours  Publics,  18mo.,  Paris 1849 

Glade,  P.-V.    De  1'  Indemnite  des  Pauvres,  8vo.,  Paris 1850 

Of  the  Indemnity  of  the  Poor  in  France. 

Beziat,  G.    Organization  de  I'Epargne  du  Travailleur,  12mo.,  Paris 1848 

Du  Travail  et  du  Pain,  18mo.,  Paris 1849 

Of  Labour  and  of  Bread. 
De  la  Liberte  du  Travail,  8vo.,  Paris 1849 

Of  the  Liberty  of  Labour,  and  the  means  of  assuring  the  material 
and  moral  well-being  of  the  labouring  classes. 

Merson,  E.    Du  Droit  au  Travail,  ISmo.,  Paris 1848 

Jollivct.    De  la  Philanthropic  Anglaise,  8vo.,  Paris 1842 


332  NOTES. 


Degerando  oy  Charity;  other  French  works  on  Labour,  the 
Poor,  and  Charity,  specially  noticed. 

We  trust  the  catalogue  of  French  works,  furnished  above,  may  go  far 
to  give  the  desired  impression  of  the  fulness,  the  frankness,  and  the 
thoroughness  with  which  the  topics  which  they  discuss  have  been  met 
and  treated.  If  the  interested  reader  has  not  received  as  strong  an 
impression  as  it  is  fitted  to  give,  we  almost  despair,  in  the  limits  which 
are  left  us,  of  carrying  his  interest  to  the  desired  point  by  the  rapid 
survey  we  may  now  take  of  some  of  these  admirable  volumes.  These 
works  may  be  classified  by  their  subjects ;  as  works  on  charity,  bene- 
ficence, humanity ;  on  the  poor,  indigence,  pauperism,  misery ;  on  la- 
bour,— its  proper  organization  and  its  just  rewards ;  on  the  history  of 
the  working  classes  in  all  ages  and  stages  of  society;  on  Christian  poli- 
tical economy;  and  on  special  subjects,  such  as  the  historj^  of  prostitu- 
tion, and  full  accounts  of  all  existing  hospitals,  asylums,  and  benevo- 
lent institutions.  To  these  may  be  added,  able  histories  of  the  various 
reforms  and  reformers  of  ancient  and  modern  times.  These  subjects 
branch  and  spread  over  so  wide  a  field,  that  the  classification,  like  the 
catalogue,  fails  to  give  an  idea  of  the  width  of  the  harvest  opened  to 
the  reader.  But  these  volumes  maybe  also  arranged  according  to  the 
character,  position,  and  opinions  of  the  writers.  We  have,  then,  poli- 
tical economists,  philanthropists,  catholics,  protestants,  statesmen,  phi- 
losophers. It  is,  perhaps,  most  curious  and  most  instructive  to  regard 
this  matter  under  the  point  of  view  of  the  parties  from  whom  the 
respective  opinions  emanated.  AVe  can,  however,  follow  up  neither 
classification  in  what  we  further  submit,  and  only  merely  indicate  a 
few  of  the  more  reuiarkable  books,  making  a  few  quotations  and  ex- 
tracts. For  many  years  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences 
has  distinguished  itself  in  the  career  of  discussions  touching  social  in- 
terests, physical  and  moral  well-being.  This  society  ofi"ered  a  prize  of 
5000  francs  for  the  best  memoir  on  the  subject  of — "Misery,  in  what 
it  consists;  what  ai-e  its  manifestations  in  difierent  countries;  and  what 
are  its  causes."  This  is  only  one  of  very  many  prizes  ofi'ered  for  me- 
moirs on  kindred  topics  by  this  society  during  the  last  twenty-five 
years.  Very  many  valuable  works  have  appeared  in  that  period,  in 
response  to  the  questions  thus  propounded. 

But  this  society,  having  its  seat  at  Paris,  was  not  the  only  associa- 
tion which  gave  earnest  heed  to  these  subjects ;  several  others,  in  dif- 


NOTES.  333 


fcrcnt  parts  of  France,  had  brought  forward  the  condition  of  the  suffer- 
ing classes.  As  early  as  1777,  the  Academy  of  Chalons-sur-Marne 
received  a  hundred  memoirs  in  reply  to  questions  upon  mendicancy. 
A  summary  of  these  papers  was  published,  and  furnishes  a  vast  mine  of 
materials  and  thought  for  inquirers.  There  is,  indeed,  abundant  evi- 
dence that  the  literary  and  scientific  associations  of  France  have  not 
been  forgetful  of  those  whom  poverty  had  denied,  not  only  the  advan- 
tages enjoyed  by  them,  but  even  the  smallest  comforts  beyond  a  bare 
existence. 

The  most  meritorious  work,  perhaps,  which  has  appeared  in  Franco 
on  this  subject,  is  that  by  the  Baron  Degerando,  entitled,  "  De  la 
BiENPAiSANCE  PuBLiQUE,"  published  at  Paris  in  1838,  in  four  volumes, 
8vo.  The  author  had  previously  published  the  Visiteur  du  Pauvre,  in 
which  he  had  turned  the  attention  of  his  readers  to  the  condition  and 
claims  of  the  poor,  and  furnished  directions  and  motives  for  a  constant 
and  zealous  attention  to  their  wants.* 

This  work  of  Degerando  may  be  fairly  considered  as  having  pre- 
sented the  most  complete  view  of  public  charity  which  had  appeared 
at  the  date  of  its  publication,  and,  though  a  flood  of  light  has  since 
been  shed  on  its  various  topics,  yet  no  single  production  has  surpassed 
it  in  variety,  fulness,  method,  and  the  very  spirit  of  kindness.  In  de- 
dicating it  to  Ids  'friends,  he  prays  that  "  He  who  is  the  source  of  all 
good,  all  consolation,  and  all  light,  may  shed  his  blessing  upon  the 
imperfect  attempt,  and  that  his  effort  may  contribute  somewhat  to  tho 
solace  of  humanity  and  the  progress  of  good  morals."  The  introduc- 
tion contains  an  am^jle  survey  of  the  English,  German,  and  French 
literature  upon  the  subject  of  his  labours.  This  exhibits  great  learn- 
ing, industry,  and  discrimination,  and  furnishes  proof  how  fully  he  was 
prepared  for  his  task.  In  regard  to  the  German  writers,  we  are 
informed  that  the  number  who  have  taken  up  this  subject  is  so  con- 
siderable as  to  have  led  to  the  publication  of  special  catalogues  and 
bibliographical  compilations.  He  indicates  a  considerable  number  of 
the  principal  works,  and  furnishes  an  appreciation  of  their  contents. 
We  cannot  better  give  the  spirit  of  the  whole  work  than  from  the  first 
portion  of  the  rather  prolonged  introduction. 
'•  The  noble  studies  of  which  the  interests  of  humanity  are  the  object,  and 

*  This  excellent  little  volume  has  been  translated  and  published  in  Boston, 
with  a  valuable  introduction,  written  at  the  instance  of  the  lady  who  made  the 
translation,  by  the  Rev.  Joseph  Tuckerman,  1832. 


334  NOTES. 


which  affect  elerated  minds  with  such  profound  sympathies,  are  associated  by 
very  intimate  relations.  Tending  to  a  common  end  and  based  upon  the  same 
elements,  they  afford  mutual  light  and  demand  mutual  support." 

"  Among  their  number,  that  which  relates  to  the  ills  of  suffering  humanity, — 
to  the  means  of  prerenting  and  solacing  them, — bears,  more  than  any,  close 
relations  to  all  the  others.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  system "We  cannot  in- 
vestigate the  painful  phenomena  of  poverty  without  penetrating  the  constituent 
elements  of  society  itself,  and  without  entertaining  grave  considerations  upon 
the  distinction  of  classes,  and  the  organization  of  property  and  labour.  The 
causes  and  effects  of  poverty  touch,  in  many  points,  upon  the  subjects  of  crimi- 
nal and  civil  legislation.  In  seeking  preservatives  and  remedies,  we  enter,  fre- 
quently, upon  the  most  important  problems  of  political  economy.  All  that 
regards  public  health  comes  under  contribution  in  the  consideration  of  public 
succour.  The  torch  of  morals  casts  upon  the  origin  and  development  of  indi- 
gence light  which  we  are  far  from  having  appreciated  in  its  whole  extent 

Philosophy,  also,  contributes  to  the  study  of  beneficence ;  and  these  contribu- 
tions are  more  important  than  is  generally  perceived.  Religion,  finally,  which 
rules  ever  at  the  summit  of  human  affairs,  as  including  at  once  the  higher 
mysteries  and  the  highest  laws,  appears,  full  of  warning  and  wisdom,  but 
abounding  in  consolation,  upon  the  scene  where  so  many  sufferings  are  dis- 
played and  so  many  victims  sigh;  it  reveals  knowledge,  succours,  and  hopes  of 
inestimable  value ;  it  works  wonders  which  manifest  its  power  and  claim  the 
admiration  and  the  gratitude  of  the  whole  human  family." 

"  The  study  of  the  ills  of  humanity  mingles  intimately  with  all  the  interests 
of  social  order.  Statesmen  who  have  heretofore  disdained  this  inquiry,  discover 
now,  not  without  apprehension,  that  in  this  study  are  questions  upon  which 
depend  the  repose  of  nations  and  the  destiny  of  peoples.  Governments  learn 
that,  in  the  tears  of  the  poor,  there  are  for  them  instruction  and  duties.  Of 
all  conditions  of  people,  the  wretched  are,  without  doubt,  those  who  have  the 
most  right  to  our  cares  and  anxieties;  but  we  know  their  interests  are  con- 
nected with  the  other  classes  of  society  by  a  union  which  may  be  violated  but 
cannot  be  obliterated." 

"If  the  general  happiness,  if  the  improvement  of  the  great  human  family, 
is  the  object  of  all  the  social  sciences,  that  inquiry  which  concerns  the  suffering 
classes  must  be  preliminary  to  all  others.  Must  it  not  contribute  to  all  ?  Does 
it  not  receive  from  all?  Is  it  not,  in  many  respects,  one  of  the  most  vast,  one 
of  the  most  necessary  ?    Is  it  not,  alas !  also  one  of  the  practical  sciences  ?" 

"  To  be  solid  and  instructive,  such  a  study  ought  to  be  extended  to  its  utmo.«t 
compass.  It  presents  many  phases,  it  is  complicated  in  many  ways.  It  must 
be  regarded  as  a  whole,  if  the  sacred  cause  of  humanity  is  to  be  efficiently 
served.  The  different  branches  of  aid  cannot  be  well  appreciated  but  by  their 
coincidence  in  a  common  system,  and  by  their  relation  with  the  evils  they  pro- 
pose to  cure.  In  considering  these  evils,  we  ask,  whilst  soothing  them,  if  they 
could  have  been  prevented;  we  find  ourselves  inquiring  their  origin;  we  are 
led  over  the  whole  path  of  human  life, — observing  the  accidents  which  menace 
it,  the  helps  which  sustain  it;  we  regard  misfortune  in  its  sad  and  numberless 


NOTES.  335 


forms,  in  its  connection  witli  riches,  in  its  relations  with  the  whole  of  society, 
which  acts  upon  it  in  many  ways,  and  upon  which  it  in  turn  reacts." 

He  remarks,  that  those  who  visit  the  abodes  of  destitution  and  the 
establishments  for  relief  "  cannot  fail  to  be  profoundly  affected,  to  be 
attracted  to  the  holy  cause  of  humanity,  and  to  be  strongly  inclined  to 
devote  themselves  wholly  to  it." 

The  treatment  of  the  subject  of  charity  by  the  Christian  fathers  is 
noticed,  showing  how  they  "successively  vindicate  the  rights  of  the 
poor;  how  warmly  they  exhort  to  the  duty  of  alms-giving,  and  how, 
especially,  they  show  that  the  duties  of  charity  devolve  upon  the  minis- 
ters of  religion."  It  seems  that  the  obligations  of  the  clergy  in  regard 
to  the  poor  have,  in  modern  times,  engaged  the  attention  of  the  public 
more  in  Germany  than  elsewhere.  In  1787,  Julius,  Bishop  of  Wurtz- 
burgh,  proposed  as  the  subject  of  a  prize  essay,  "  The  duties  of  eccle- 
siastics and  those  who  have  the  care  of  souls,  relatively  to  the  well- 
being  of  those  under  their  charge,  and  especially  the  poor."  Twenty-five 
essays  were  sent  in  response,  and  many  of  them  were  published, 
"  breathing  the  pure  spirit  of  Christianity." 

"  The  principles  which  establish  the  rights  of  the  poor  and  the  obligations  of 
the  rich  have  greatly  occupied  the  attention  of  theologians,  moralists,  and 
jurisconsults  of  Germany.  Wagenseilius,  in  1700;  Muller  in  1749;  rfafl"  in- 
1771 ;  Count  Spaur,  in  1802,  have  made  them  the  subject  of  elaborate  works. 
Various  German  and  Swiss  societies  have  proposed  questions  upon  these  topics; 
and  altogether,  in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  the  subject  has  been  more  worthily 
handled  and  illustrated  by  examples  than  elsewhere." 

Degerando  notices  the  Malthusian  controversy,  and  furnishes  proof 
enough,  whilst  he  gives  him  due  credit  for  ability,  that  he  has  no 
sympathy  with  the  leading  doctrines  of  Malthus.  Among  the  followers 
of  Malthus,  he  distinguishes  Dr.  Chalmers,  clearly  with  the  intention 
of  explaining  why  such  a  man  should  be  found  in  such  company. 

'•  Among  the  writers  who  are  ranged  under  the  banner  of  Malthus,  are  some 
who  have  more  or  less  modified  his  positions  and  corrected  his  errors.  At  the 
head  of  these  is  the  respectable  Dr.  Chalmers.  Casting  over  the  whole  field  of 
philanthropic  studies  a  coup-d'ceil  at  once  vast  and  profound,  he  perceived  the 
divorce  which  was  separating  political  economy  from  Christian  charity.  He 
undertook  the  reconciliation  of  these  two  classes  of  doctrines ;  he  has  shown 
the  need  they  have  of  each  other,  and  the  inevitable  mischief  of  the  separation ; 
he  pointed  out  the  principles  which  are  common  to  them,  and  thus  at  once 
served  the  interests  of  society  and  humanity.  Beholding,  under  a  new  aspect, 
the  influence  of  Christianity  upon  the  institutions  of  beneficence,  he  has  shown 
in  his  life,  not  less  than  in  his  writings,  that  ecclesiastical  establishments  are  the 


336  NOTES. 


appropriate  channels  of  benevolence.  A  minister  himself  of  Christian  worship, 
he  justly  appreciated  the  present  state  of  society  and  the  moral  wants  it  ex- 
periences." 

*  *  *  *  *  * 

"  Frequently  prolix,  but  giving  a  special  value  to  every  detail  by  the  spirit 
of  observation  which  he  displays,  and  by  the  practical  utility  at  which  he  aims; 
with  what  skill  does  he  not  set  forth  all  the  springs  of  the  organization  suitable 
for  carrying  out  the  actions  he  recommends !  With  what  authority  of  reason 
and  experience  does  he  not  demonstrate  the  necessity  of  localizing,  special- 
izing, individualizing  the  different  modes  of  succour!  How  admirably  he 
reveals  the  immense  advantages  which  flow  from  the  relations  of  good-will 
which  an  active  and  intelligent  charity  establishes  between  the  rich  and  indi- 
gent classes,  and  the  means  of  increasing  this  touching  sympathy." 

After  signalizing  at  some  length  and  with  great  discrimination  tho 
course  of  authorship  on  these  subjects,  Degerando  closes  his  intro- 
ductory essay  by  some  remarks  upon  what  remains  undone.  He  notes 
the  "  gi'eat  divergence  of  opinion  among  writers,  and  the  confusion  in 
the  minds  of  many,  which  in  some  begets  discouragement,  and  in  others 
distrust.  The  art  of  beneficence,  at  first  glance  so  simple  in  its  prin- 
ciples, so  easy  in  its  application,  has  given  rise  to  problems  the  most 
complicated.  In  proportion  as  we  remount  to  first  principles,  these 
problems  become  even  more  difiicult.  Religious  and  political  differ- 
ences have  mingled  in  these  discussions,  and  thus  increased  the  diffi- 
culty by  turning  inquirers  from  the  unbiassed  pursuit  of  tnith.  The 
very  foundations  of  our  present  social  organizations  have  been  drawn 
in  question ;  the  war  of  the  poor  against  the  rich  has  at  some  periods 
appeared  imminent;  and  thus  an  agitation  of  mind  has  arisen  which 
renders  the  whole  of  these  studies  more  important  for  the  interests  of 
humanity.  Painful  anticipations  have  crept  into  the  minds  of  good 
people — a  dark  cloud  lies  in  their  horizon,  which  seems  to  be  fraught 
with  tempests.  They  fear  to  see  the  scourge  of  pauperism  sweeping  over 
the  land,  and  a  feeling  of  dread  takes  possession  of  the  thoughtful." 

Upon  comparing  the  views  of  the  different  parties  to  this  great  dis- 
cussion, he  ranges  himself  on  the  side  of  the  hopeful,  believing  that 
the  very  discussion  itself  justifies  our  expecting  the  triumph  of  truth. 

"  We  believe  firmly  in  this  triumph.  We  thus  believe,  after  having  partaken 
of  the  grievous  doubts  which  arise  from  such  opposite  opinions, — after  having 
weighed  and  compared  these  contradictions  with  a  conscientious  impartiality. 
Long  reflection  and  continued  investigation  have  produced  the  deepest  convic- 
tions, which  we  shall  express  with  as  much  sincerity  as  they  were  formed.  We 
have  faith  in  the  marvellous  power  of  beneficence  guided  by  wisdom.  We  are 
persuaded  that  this  holy  virtue  is  not  a  thing  of  hazard,  or  vague  or  random 


NOTES.  337 


instinct.  It  has  rules,  although  difficult,  founded  upon  positive  principles.  We 
do  not  partake  of  the  terror  felt  by  some  in  the  present  day  on  the  subject  of 
pauperism.  We  are  not  alarmed  at  the  increase  of  population,  nor  at  the  flight 
of  industry,  nor  at  the  growth  of  great  cities,  nor  at  the  inequality  of  condition ; 
but  we  think  that  the  new  social  circumstances  begot  by  the  progress  of  in- 
dustry, of  wealth,  of  the  advance  of  civilization,  have  given  birth  to  new 
necessities,  and  impose  on  society  new  obligations.  We  are  alarmed  at  dangers 
more  real  in  our  view,  and  because,  perhaps,  less  known,  more  dangerous.  If 
our  new  social  duties  are  neglected,  the  danger  will  become  more  imminent;  we 
need,  therefore,  a  system  of  public  beneficence,  worked  out  with  the  most  liberal 
and  enlightened  views,  as  the  greatest  of  ameliorations  in  the  condition  of  the 
suffering.  Social  ties  are  now  becoming  loosened ;  the  spirit  of  calculation  has 
invaded  every  thing;  individuality  feels  a  conscious  triumph;  attacks,  always 
imprudent,  often  culpable,  awaken  between  the  different  classes  of  society 
distrust  and  discord,  if  not  dreadful  hostility.   In  the  very  bosom  of  prosperity, 

inquietude  begins  to  grow  and  spread." "All  must  concur  in  the  resto' 

ration  of  harmony.  We  shall  insist  upon  this  duty,  in  all  its  extent  and  in  all 
its  strictness.  The  result  for  the  rich,  will  be  the  enlightened  and  benevolent 
patronage  of  the  poor;  for  the  poor,  the  spirit  of  labour,  of  order,  and  good 
conduct;  for  society  in  general,  measures  of  protection,  of  prevention,  and  of 

solace  for  misfortune." 

"  A  great  and  principal  truth  springs  up  here  to  our  view :— to  morals  belongs 
the  grand  privilege  of  founding,  preserving,  and  perfecting  human  institutions; 
to  morals  belongs  eminently  the  prevention  of  the  causes  of  indigence,  and 
the  solace  of  sufferings,  and,  above  all,  the  establishment  of  such  relations 
between  rich  and  poor  as  may  be  equally  useful  and  happy  for  both.  Tublic 
morals  are  the  soul  of  social  beneficence,  as  virtue  is  the'  inspiration  of  pri- 
vate charity.  The  august  alliance  of  morals  and  beneficence  is,  in  our  view, 
the  thought  which  comprehends  and  governs  the  whole  subject ;  it  has  guided 
our  labours,  animated  our  zeal,  sustained  our  strength,  and  is  the  foundation 
of  our  hopes." 

"The  well-being  of  the  labouring  classes  is  a  subject  of  immense  interest  for 
society,  and  cannot  be  purchased  at  a  price  too  high.  To  ascertain  the  means 
of  promoting  that  well-being;  to  emancipate  this  numerous  and  interesting 
class  from  the  evils  which  threaten  them,  or,  at  least,  to  mitigate  the  sufferings 
which  are  inevitable,  is  the  ardent  desire  of  all  generous  minds.  We  unite 
with  such  with  all  our  soul ;  we  are  devoted  to  this  effort  with  all  the  zeal  and 
all  the  perseverance  of  which  we  are  capable.  But  to  serve  this  great  cause 
the  more  perfectly,  we  are,  above  all,  devoted  to  the  truth ;  we  refuse  to  in- 
dulge in  illusions  which  may  defeat  our  progress  by  carrying  us  too  far.  We 
have  not  merely  kept  in  view  that  which  is  desirable,  but  that  which  is 
practicable." 

We  have  drawn  largely  from  this  introductory  essay;  but  those  who 
will  read  the  whole  will  find  that  our  extracts  have  failed  to  furnish 
any  adequate  idea  of  its  merit.    It  was  by  far  the  best  statement  of  the 

29 


338  NOTES. 


Bubject,  as  it  tlien  stood,  wliieh  had  ever  appeared.  No  doubt  it  con- 
tributed not  a  little  to  awaken  men's  minds  to  tlae  pressing  importance 
of  questions  the  discussion  of  which  could  not  be  much  longer  delayed. 
It  is  true,  that  great  delusions  prevail  on  these  topics  in  France,  but 
there  is  also  a  large  and  enlightened  body  which  clings  to  the  sober 
but  earnest  humanity  of  Degerando.  In  real  knowledge  of  this  sub- 
ject the  French  are  an  age  in  advance  of  their  English  neighbours} 
and  if  they  are  more  annoyed  by  those  who  hold  extravagant  and  im- 
practicable theories,  they  have  weapons  to  contend  with  them  which 
must  finally  conquer.  In  England,  these  extravagant  and  dangerous 
doctrines  are  repressed,  not  refuted.  When  they  prevail  in  England  to 
an  equal  extent  as  in  France,  they  will  be  more  dangerous,  because 
there  only  brute  force  will  be  opposed  to  them. 

We  have  yet  to  point  out  the  arrangement  and  the  special  topics  of 
the  work  before  us. 

The  First  Part. — Book  First  treats  of  indigence  in  its  relations  with  social 
economy,  as  being  the  object  of  public  beneficence.  Indigence  classified,  absolute 
or  relative ;  its  degrees,  and  herein  of  wages.  Tlie  indigent  strong  and  weak, 
male  and  female,  skilled  and  unskilled,  by  their. own  fault,  temporary  and 
permanent ;  circumstances,  prognostics,  and  effects  of  indigence.  Statistics  of 
poverty  in  the  various  countries  of  Europe  and  in  the  United  States  of  America. 

Boole  Second.— Of  social  riches,  and  herein  of  the  total  wealth  of  a  country 
and  its  special  apportionment,  of  the  inequality  of  conditions,  of  the  lower 
classes  and  of  the  prospects  of  the  extinction  of  indigence:  of  industry  in  its 
relations  with  the  causes  of  indigence,  and  of  the  labourer  under  the  double 
aspect  of  producer  and  consumer,  and  herein  of  the  rewards  of  labour,  the 
relations  of  the  employers  with  the  employed,  the  rate  of  wages,  and  the  prices 
of  articles  of  consumption  ;  raw  materials,  great  enterprises,  influences  of  com- 
merce, vicissitudes  of  industry,  effect  of  profuse  expenditure  or  luxury  in  the 
higher  classes  upon  the  labourer,  the  labour  of  children,  labour  as  a  means  of 
instruction;  of  population  in  its  relations  with  indigence.  Questions  raised 
upon  this  sr.bji'ct,  of  the  increase  of  population,  mortality,  births,  marriages, 
manners  and  morals,  vices,  crimes,  influence  of  towns,  influence  of  higher 
classes ;  of  social,  institutions  and  their  influence  upon  poverty,  institutions 
political  and  social  of  communities,  corporatioi3S  of  arts  and  trades,  laws  of 
property  and  laws  as  to  persons,  penal  and  fiscal  laws,  public  expenditure, 
taxes,  lotteries,  corn-laws,  customs,  militai-y  service ;  how  the  errors  of  benefi- 
cence multiply  the  indigent,  distinguishing  the  true  poor  from  the  pretended; 
the  grounds  of  apprehension  from  the  increase  of  pauperism. 

Third  Bool: — Of  the  rights  of  indigence  as  arising  from  civilization,  their 
nature  and  c.\t^r;t.  limits,  duties  of  the  poor,  injuries,  di.-tiuetion  between  legal 
charity  and  public  beneficence,  of  the  duties  and  power  of  private  and  public 
charity. 


NOTES.  339 


Secokd  T.K.-R.T.—Book  J^tVs^— Institutions  for  the  education  of  the  poor,  aiding 
mothers,  placing  them  at  nurse,  schools  and  asylums  for  infonts,  their  manage- 
ment and  economy;  orphans,  institutions  for  their  care,  ancient  and  modern, 
in  Europe;  orphans  in  England  and  the  United  States.  France  and  Belgium, 
regulations;  foundlings,  their  treatment  anciently  and  now ;  foundling  hospi- 
tals, their  history  in  every  country  of  Europe,  questions,  doubts,  and  discus- 
sions as  to  foundlings,  abandonment  of  children. 

The  subject  of  foundlings  is  treated  at  great  length  in  every  aspect 
of  the  subject,  but  with  a  constant  inclination  to  the  propriety  and 
necessity  of  providing  fully  for  the  support  and  education  of  all  found- 
lings as  weU  as  orphans.  There  is  clearly  no  infusion  of  Malthus  in 
the  twelve  chapters  of  Degerando's  work  devoted  to  the  interests  of 
little  children.  The  11th  and  12th  of  these  chapters  relate  specially 
to  schools  for  foundlings  and  orphans,  to  train  their  minds  in  knowledge 
and  their  hands  to  useful  employment 

Second  Bool: — Institutions  for  loans  to  the  poor  throughout  Europe,  their 
history  and  utility ;  of  societies  for  mutual  assistance,  their  origin  in  Greece 
and  Rome. history ;  life  insurance;  savings'  banks, their  character  and  history 
in  Europe. 

TIdrd  Bool-. — Of  the  moans  of  preventing  indigence  by  changes  in  social 
economy,  of  measures  touching  the  apportionment  of  property,  of  co-operative 
societies,  of  the  organization  of  labour,  the  necessity  of  it  at  present,  the  con- 
ditions to  be  fulfilled,  country  labour,  city  labour,  the  various  kinds  of  trades, 
large  manufactories,  public  service,  special  institutions  to  provide  labour, 
domestic  economy  of  the  labourer,  public  health,  instruction  of  the  working 
classes,  prizes  for  special  acts  of  virtue,  the  family,  contentment  of  the  labour- 
ing classes,  popular  amusements,  morals,  police,  labour  as  a  means  of  educa- 
tion, houses  of  refuge  for  females,  temperance  societies,  morals  of  criminals  in 
confinement,  penitentiary  systems,  and  aid  for  those  who  are  set  at  liberty; 
of  religion,  as  a  part  of  popular  education,  as  the  protectress  of  the  suffering, 
the  special  power  of  Christianity  for  the  amelioration  of  popular  morals,  the 
ills  of  false  religious  instruction,  exterior  worship  ;  of  the  means  of  strength- 
ening religious  influences  upon  popular  manners. 

Third  Part. — Booh  First. — Of  the  means  of  procuring  useful  occupation  for 
the  poor,  employment  with  individuals  and  for  the  public,  lal^our  at  the  domicil, 
Hamburg  Institute,  shops  for  sale  of  products  of  labour  of  the  poor ;  work- 
houses throughout  Europe,  reform  of  English  poor-laws;  discussions  which  have 
arisen  as  to  workhouses,  of  their  organization,  economj-,  discipline ;  of  work- 
houses where  the  labour  is  forced,  their  history;  of  receptacles  for  mendicants, 
and  their  history  in  Eurojie,  of  their  utility,  objections  and  replies ;  of  the 
labour  most  suitable  for  the  poor,  in  respect  to  their  capacity,  to  their  manage- 
ment, or  to  their  working  by  the  piece  or  jot),  the  effect  of  their  labour  on  the 
general  interests  of  industry,  of  the  public  works,  charity-shops,  farm-labour, 
distribution  of  lands  to  the  poor;  colonization  of  (he  poor,  their  fitness  for  colo- 


340  NOTES. 


nists,  colonies  interior,  foreign,  various  experiments.  Switzerland.  Ilolland, 
Belgium,  agricultural  colonies  as  a  means  of  beneficence  for  the  poor,  objections 
and  replies;  of  emigration,  researches  on  the  subject,  various  emigrations  of 
Europe,  interior  and  foreign. 

Book  Second. — Assistance  at  the  domicil,  origin  and  first  forms  of,  and  specially 
in  Great  Britain,  organization,  succour  to  the  able-bodied,  to  the  weak,  results 
of  such  assistance,  charitable  associations  affording  the  mode  of  relief  in  Eng- 
land, assistance  at  domicil  in  various  countries  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United 
States,  of  the  best  methods  of  giving  this  succour,  visiting  the  poor,  of  giving 
money;  of  distributions  at  reduced  prices  of  food,  clothing,  fuel,  to  the  aged 
and  incurable,  to  women  and  children,  casuaJties,  burial,  succour  extraordi- 
nary in  great  public  calamities,  as  famine,  fire,  and  flood,  of  aid  to  those  who 
are  so  timid  as  not  to  make  known  their  wants. 

Third  Book. — Of  houses  of  entertainment  for  the  poor  among  the  ancients, 
in  the  middle  ages,  and  at  the  present  day,  establishments  in  France  since 
1750;  of  hospitals,  their  utility,  objections  answered,  their  constitution,  con- 
ditions of  admission,  a  great  variety  of  particulars  in  relation  to  administra- 
tion ;  hospitals  for  children,  for  chronic  affections,  and  lying-in  hospitals ;  of 
houses  for  the  old  and  the  infirm;  of  houses  for  the  insane,  their  constitution, 
history,  and  condition  in  Europe,  in  the  United  States,  and  in  the  East. 

Fourth  Part. — First  Book. — Of  poor-laws,  of  the  origin  of  legislation  for  the 
poor,  legislation  of  the  Egyptians,  Hebrews,  Greeks,  Romans — repviblican  and 
imperial,  legislation  of  Modern  Europe  for  the  poor,  requisites  in  legislation  for 
the  poor. 

Book  Second. — Of  the  administration  of  poor-laws,  unity  of  system,  centraliza- 
tion, union  of  public  and  religious  charity,  officers,  associations,  and  of  females 
in  the  work  of  charity ;  ameliorations  desirable  in  the  administration  of  relief. 

If  Degerando  could,  with  his  wide  survey  of  the  subject,  with  his 
unprejudiced  and  frank  statement  of  the  truth,  have  carried  with  him 
the  Christian  fervour,  experience,  and  knowledge  of  Dr.  Chalmers,  the 
work  we  have  just  noticed  would  have  been  one  of  the  most  effective 
and  useful  which  ever  came  from  the  press.  The  student  of  humanity 
should  therefore  carry  to  the  study  of  Degerando  the  Christianity  and 
zeal  of  Chalmers.  Whoever  reads  the  "Visiteur  du  Pauvre"  and  " De  la 
Bicnfaisance  Ptbhlique,"  in  the  strong  Christian  aspect  of  the  subjects, 
will  find  a  range  of  topics  open  to  his  vision  which  will  make  him 
lament  that  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  volumes  which  now  crowd  the 
shelves  of  theological  libraries  had  not  been  devoted  to  the  interests 
of  men,  temporal  and  eternal,  instead  of  being  of  so  little  practical  value 
that  they  might  be  all  destroyed  any  day  without  detriment  to  human 
welfare.  The  "Word  was  made  flesh"  and  dwelt  with  us  in  a  blended 
divinity  and  humanity :  let  the  word  of  our  religious  instruction  be 


NOTE  S.  341 


ever  so  continued  to  us,  that  while  God  is  always  held  up  to  our  view, 
man  is  never  hidden  from  our  sight. 

The  History  of  Charity  during  the  First  Four  Centuries  of  the  Christian 
Era,  by  Martin  Doisy,  which  appeared  immediately  after  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1848,  is  well-conceived,  exhibits  much  research,  and,  although 
the  whole  work  is  from  an  earnest  Catholic,  abounds  in  considerations 
of  great  and  instructive  interest.  The  subject  is  regarded  as  one 
clearly  belonging  to  Christianity,  and  the  devotion  of  the  Romish 
Church  to  its  duties  is  treated  as  one  of  her  highest  titles  to  favour. 
But  while  it  is  thus  viewed,  it  is  apparent  that  the  chief  design  of  the 
author  is  to  promote  the  well-being  of  the  suffering  classes. 

"  No  one  can  accuse  us  of  having  erred  as  to  the  time  of  bringing  forward  a 
work,  of  which  the  suffering  classes  are  the  subject  and  charity  the  foundation. 
Politics,  social  economy,  the  legislative  hall,  and  the  periodical  press,  history 
and  romance,  present  us,  at  every  turn,  with  the  subject  of  the  masses.  At 
this  moment,  history  is  being  recast  and  rewritten  for  the  benefit  of  the 
people." "  The  object  of  France  is  the  people — it  is  the  progressive  ameli- 
oration of  the  lot  of  the  suffering  multitudes ;  that  is,  the  present  ameliorated 
by  the  education  of  men ;  the  future  assured  by  the  education  of  the  children." 

Quoting  from  Lamartine,  who  is  addressing  a  proprietor,  he  says : — 

"  Keep  thy  property,  for  in  spite  of  visions  of  community  of  goods,  property 
is  the  sine  qua  non  of  society :  without  it  we  can  have  neither  family,  nor  labour, 
nor  civilization." 

But  he  says  also : — 

"Forget  not,  that  property  is  not  instituted  for  thee  merely,  but  for  all 
humanity:  thou  shalt  possess  it,  but  upon  the  conditions  of  justice,  social 
utility,  and  an  open  hand:  thou  shalt  furnish  to  thy  brethren,  out  of  thy  super- 
fluity, the  means  and  elements  of  labour  necessary  for  them,  that  they,  in  their 
turn,  may  become  helpers  of  others :  thou  shalt  recognise  a  right  above  the 
right  of  property — the  rigJit  of  humanity." 

He  quotes  from  Guizot,  who  speaks  thus  : — 

"  It  is  impossible  to  regard  without  profound  compassion  so  many  human 
beings  bearing  from  the  cradle  to  the  tomb  so  heav}'  a  burden,  and  even  then 
scarcely  maintaining  a  miserable  existence.  That  is  a  grievous  thought,  and 
yet  it  is  a  thought  never  to  be  dismissed ;  to  forget  it  would  be  a  grave  and  peril- 
ous error." 

The  work  before  us  is  not  a  mere  work  of  theology :  its  olijeet  is  to 
show  how  the  duties  of  Christian  charity  bear  upon  the  condition  and 
prospects  of  the  suffering  working-classes.  He  shows  us  the  advent 
of  charity  at  the  appearing  of  Christ,  and  sets  forth  at  large  his  mission 
of  mercy,  his  humble  ministry  of  kindness,  as  that  which  it  should  bd 

29* 


342  N  0  T  E  s. 


the  aim  of  his  followers  to  imitate.  lie  recounts  the  hospitality  of 
ancient  Christians  and  the  charity  of  the  apostolic  times;  he  develops 
the  doctrines  of  human  fraternity,  and,  especially,  the  doctrine  of 
charity  as  taught  hy  Christ.  Although  the  Catholic  Church  is  greatly 
lauded  by  this  writer,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  recommend  his  work  to 
Protestants,  as  calculated  to  humble  their  spiritual  pride,  and  possibly 
goad  them  into  paths  of  charity  hitherto  little  trodden  by  their  feet. 

We  have  A  Philosophical  History  of  Beneficence,  from  the  pen  of  M. 
Tailhand,  in  1847.  It  has  considerable  merit,  and  is  also  written 
expressly  with  reference  to  the  sufferings  of  the  labouring  classes. 
His  introduction  commences  thus  : — 

"  The  human  race  is,  in  its  earthly  dwelling,  afflicted  with  so  many  evils,  that 
it  might  be  deemed  man  was  a  mere  abortion  upon  the  earth.  The  thrill  of 
joy  runs  rarely  to  his  heart,  and  even  then  it  is  rarely  unmingled  with  sad- 
ness.   Infirmities  are  the  portion  of  his  physical  nature,  and  make  him  a  man 

of  grief." "In  the  midst  of  this  scene  of  suffering  and  disorder  which  is 

displayed  around  us,  there  is  one  bright  object  which  delights  us  and  justifies 
the  course  of  Providence  to  our  race ;  that  is  beneficence — that  is  the  man  of 
charity.  His  deeds  are,  in  my  view,  rays  of  the  Divinity  piercing  the  night 
of  this  world, — demonstrative  evidence  of  that  Providence  which  never  with- 
draws its  overwatching  care.  I  could  never  have  believed  that  man  was  made 
in  the  image  of  his  Creator,  if  I  had  not  seen  him  smitten  with  tenderness  and 
compassion  for  the  siaffering ;  and  now  I  perceive  him  to  be  intrusted  with  a 
special  mission  of  love  and  mercy  to  his  fellow-creatures.  If  I  inquire  whence 
comes  this  charity,  the  ways  of  God  are  unveiled  to  my  eyes  in  a  manner  still 
more  striking;  for  I  find  the  motives  of  beneficence  in  the  heart  and  in  the 

conscience." "To  prove  that  conscience  is  the  main,  the  most  faithful, 

and  the  most  energetic  principle  of  charity,  is  the  object  of  this  work." 

Mr.  Tailhand,  who  subscribes  himself  a  Priest  ivithorit  charr/e,  gives 
a  solution  to  this  inquiry  which  is  truly  Romish.  He  makes  every  act 
of  charity  expiatory,  and  thus  shows  the  interest  of  all  men  to  be  cha- 
ritable. Every  act  of  self-sacrifice,  in  which  men  sacrifice  their  own 
interests  to  those  of  others,  goes  in  part  satisfaction  of  their  sins. 
Whatever  may  be  thought  of  this  author's  theology,  he  presents  power- 
ful motives  to  those  of  his  faith  to  abound  in  charity.  Overlooking  its 
religious  tenets,  this  volume  contains  useful  details,  interesting  views, 
strong  exhortations  upon  the  whole  subject  of  beneficence,  which  do 
credit  both  to  his  head  and  heart.  His  work,  like  that  of  Martin  Doisy, 
is  mainly  historical,  and  brings  in  review  beneficence  under  the  patri- 
archs, among  the  Jews,  among  the  pagans,  during  the  first  six  centu- 
ries of  Christianity,  in  the  middle  ages,  and  in  modern  times. 


NOTES.  343 


In  1829,  M.  T.  Duciiatel  published  at  Paris,  Charity  in  its  rela- 
tions 7oith  the  morals  and  the  rvell-heing  of  the  loicer  classes  of  society. 
Spealiing,  in  his  preface,  of  statesmen,  he  says  they  too  frequently 
*'  look  upon  nations  as  collective  beings,  and  neglect  to  extend  their 
regards  to  the  lower  classes  of  society,  who,  however,  include  tho 
greater  part  of  the  human  family ;  they  overlook  these  classes  in  their 
theories  as  they  disregard  them  in  thsir  histories.  It  appears  to  us, 
they  ought  to  have  part  in  the  general  movement — in  the  march  of 
civilization;  and  that  progress  for  the  better  ought  to  be  sought  for 
them  as  well  as  for  those  classes  who  arc  greater  favourites  of  fortune. 
Such  is  the  spirit  in  which  this  work  is  conceived."  After  a  rapid 
sketch  of  the  condition  of  the  lower  classes,  from  their  original  slavery 
until  their  gradual  attainment  of  freedom  of  person  and  freedom  of  in- 
dustry, he  proceeds : — 

"Since  this  change  has  been  accomplished,  the  destiny  of  the  working  classes 
has  been  regarded  in  two  special  aspects.  Some,  preoccupied  with  certain  theo- 
ries of  political  economy,  not  perceiving  any  other  source  of  power  and  wealth 
for  a  nation  than  what  is  derived  from  the  sale  of  domestic  products  to  foreign 
nations,  have  sacrificed  to  that  object  the  interests  of  labourers.  This  foreign 
sale  proceeds  more  freely  in  proportion  as  merchandise  is  lower  in  price ;  and 
prices  are  lower  in  proportion  as  wages  are  lower.    It  follows  that,  for  the  pros- 

peritj'of  this  foreign  trade,  wages  should  be  low It  is  in  this  point  of  view 

that  men,  the  producers  of  the  articles  which  enter  into  this  foreign  trade,  are 
regarded  as  mere  machines." 

lie  remarks  that  such  is  the  policy  of  England,  and  thanks  God  that 
this  chimerical  system,  which  sacrifices  the  well-being  of  the  popula- 
tion to  the  interests  of  commerce,  has  few  partisans  loft.  The  author, 
who  is  now  a  distinguished  public  man  and  friend  of  the  Orleans 
family,  has  lived  to  see  the  friends  of  this  system  greater  in  number 
and  stronger  in  influence  than  ever,  under  the  banner  of  free-trade. 
"  Others,  more  humane,"  our  author  proceeds,  "are  animated  with  an 
earnest  desire  for  the  good  of  the  producing  classes :  they  love  their 
fellow-men.  They  do  not  hesitate  at  sacrifices  for  tho  comfort  of  the 
indigent;  but  their  philanthropy,  not  sufficiently  enlightened,  regards 
the  actual  condition  of  the  sufi*ering  which  requires  aid  as  inevitable 
and  fixed.  They  think  only  of  helping  the  poor  by  means  derived 
from  the  rich,  and  by  deeds  of  charity." ''  Thus,  while  the  in- 
terests of  the  poor  are  sacrificed  by  some  to  false  systems  of  political 
economy,  they  are  sacrificed  by  others  to  a  false  system  of  charity." 
"But,"  referring  to  the   system   last   mentioned,  he  asks,  ''Is 


344  NOTES. 


tliis  true  charity  ?  Does  it  not  overlook  all  that  the  future  promises 
for  the  amelioration  of  the  lot  of  workmen  ?  Ought  not  our  efforts 
to  be  directed  to  increasing  the  income  of  workingmen  ?  Ought  we 
not  to  rescue  them  from  the  condition  of  dependence  upon  charity, 
by  giving  them  the  full  reward  of  their  labour  ?"  As  a  philosophical 
work,  this  is  far .  superior  to  the  two  last  mentioned :  it  is  calm  and 
forcible ;  it  displays  ability,  varied  knowledge,  and  deep  sympathy. 
He  discusses  the  following  topics: — The  necessity  of  cliaritij,  and  the 
rides  for  its  exercise  ;  the  causes  of  misery  ;  the  laws  which  determine 
the  increase  of  2>opulation  among  the  inferior  classes  ;  formation  of 
capital;  inequality  of  icealth  ;  employment  of  machines ;  influence  of 
government;  remedies;  public  relief ;  famines ;  interruption  of  la- 
bour;  hospitals;  beggary ;  private  charity ;  political  economy  and 
morals  ;  prospects  of  labourers  in  the  future.  Although  we  may  differ 
from  some  of  his  conclusions,  and  desire  to  qualify  some  of  his  positions, 
we  commend  the  work  of  M.  Duchatel  to  all  the  students  of  humanity. 
One  of  his  chief  mistakes  is,  that  there  is  a  perfect  accordance  between 
political  economy  and  sound  morals :  as  he  conceived  the  subject,  there 
may  be ;  but  the  political  economy  of  the  great  writers  and  doctors  of 
the  so-called  science  discard  all  relations  with  morals  and  humanity. 
When  political  economy  is  developed  from  its  only  proper  starting- 
point,  human  well-being,  it  will  be  found  in  accordance  with  strict 
morals  and  pure  religion.  At  present,  if  its  advocates  dare  follow  it  so 
far,  a  strict  logic  would  carry  political  economy  into  sheer  infidelity. 

The  next  work  we  specially  bring  to  the  notice  of  the  reader,  is 
that  of  a  Protestant  minister  of  the  gospel  in  Geneva,  published  at 
Paris  in  1836,  in  two  volumes,  8vo., —  Of  Legal  Charity,  its  effects  and 
causes.  Its  motto,  quoted  from  the  Monthly  Journal  of  Political  Eco- 
nomy, of  1834,  is,  "The  agitation  and  uneasiness,  now  apparent  in  all 
quarters,  announce  that  the  time  has  come  when  we  must  meet  these 
high  and  difficult  questions."  It  was  written  in  competition  for  a 
priae,  proposed  by  the  French  Academy,  upon  the  following  subject : — 
"  Of  charity,  considered  in  its  principles,  in  its  applications,  and  in  its 
influence  upon  manners  and  upon  social  organization."  One-third  of 
the  prize  was  awarded  to  the  author,  the  Rev.  F.  M.  L.  Naville,  and  a 
very  complete  report  and  analysis  of  this  work  was  made  to  the  Academy 
by  its  secretary.  In  his  introduction,  the  author,  after  having  stated 
briefly  some  of  the  causes  of  indigence,  proceeds : — 

"Thence  springs  a  misery  of  which  the  spectacle  wounds  the  heart,  and  pro- 
duces frequently  an  excessively  importunate  beggary,  at  times  even  menacing 


NOTE  S.  ^"^^ 


the  general  security.    Humanity,  religion,  the  interest,  of  Roc.al  order,  and 
pubHc  well-being  exact  an  effort   to  diminish  it,-an  effort  to  reheve    he 
Tre    heTl  whose  existence  is  rendered  so  painful,-to  protect  socety  from  th 
Ingers  to  which  it  is  exposed,-to  put  an  end  to  the  fatiguing  .mportun.t.es  of 
which  it  is  the  pretext." 

The  spirit  of  this  extract  makes  a  slight  approach  to  the  English 
view  of  the  subject.     Naville,  like  Dr.  Chalmers,  is  strongly  opposed 
to  a  legal  provision  for  the  poor  ;  but,  while  his  work  is  greatly  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  Scottish  divine  in  method  and  m  breadth  of  view 
he  falls  far  below  him  in  conception  of  the  relations  of  the  subject 
with  Christianity.     Their  united  efforts  blended  would  have  presented 
the  best  work  which  has  yet  appeared;  and  their  different  conclusions 
Lnded  would,  even  yet,  form  the  safest  solution  of  *e  problems  in 
question.  Chalmers  committed  the  care  of  the  poor,  as  a  religious  duty, 
to  the  officers  of  the  parish  church:  Naville  refers  this  care  to  private 
charity,  under  the  enlightened  considerations  and  cautions  which  ho 
.uggei  stimulated  by  Christian  sympathy.    The  argument  of  NaviU 
ogaLt  le,al  ekarit,  is  of  signal  ability  and  power,  with  a  -ttiod  a. 
once  logical  and  clear,  and  fortified  by  a  large  array  of  facts  and 
authorities,  derived  from  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  and  from    he 
legislation  of  many  of  our  States.     Besides  the  sketch  he  gives  of  the 
various  countries,  he  considers  specially  the  effect  of  pubhc  relief  iipon 
Ihe  morals  and  ultimate  welfare  of  the  relieved,  the  effect  upon   hose 
who  are  refused,  and  the  effect  of  collecting  the  poor-rates  upon  those 
who  pav  them.     The  plan  of  succour  at  the  domicile  is  also  fully  con- 
sidered and  condemned  :  so,  also,  the  various  plans  of  hospitals,  asy- 
lums, private  and  public  labour   for  the  special  benefit  of  the  poor 
He  traces  the  use  of  legal  charity,  or  a  compulsory  provision  for  the 
poor,  and  furnishes  a  sketch  of  public  opinion   on  the   subject  m 

^""irproposing  private  charity  as  the  only  effectual  and  safe  mode  of 
relieving  indigence  and  suffering,  he  lays  down  six  Principles  as  a 
guide,  ^hich  maybe  briefly  stated  thus  :-l.  Pity  must  be  indulged 
but  caution  not  forgotten.  2.  We  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  poor 
man  is  a  moral  being.  3.  We  must  not  disregard  the  social  nor  ho 
family  relations  of  the  poor.  4.  We  must  not  only  relie^^  misery,  but. 
prevent  it.  5.  While  private  charity  does  the  work,  it  should  be  able 
to  derive,  and  employ  properly,  aid  drawn  from  the  public.  6.  A^  nat- 
ever  organization  be  given  to  this  public  aid,  it  should  be  of  a  naturo 
to  encourage  and  stimulate  private  charity,  by  using  the  agency  of 


346  NOTES. 


those  whose  active  charities  bring  them  continually  in  contact  with 
the  poor. 

If  these  principles,  as  well  as  much  more  which  Naville  has  written 
on  the  subject  of  private  charity,  had  a  larger  infusion  of  Christian 
light  and  sympathy,  they  would  be  unexceptionable.  Chalmers  wrote 
upon  the  subject  under  the  influence  of  a  constant  glow  of  Christian 
feeling.  Naville  philosophizes  calmly  and  kindly,  reserving  the  Chris- 
tian aspect  of  the  subject  for  a  separate  chapter,  from  which,  by  way 
of  vindicating  him,  we  proceed  to  make  a  few  extracts. 

"  If  all  men  have  the  same  origin ;  if  the  same  joys  are  promised  to  all,,  and  the 
same  punishments  are  denounced  against  all  beyond  the  tomb ;  if  their  goods 
are  but  deposites,  for  the  use  of  which  they  must  render  an  account  to  God  who 
gave  them ;  if  the  life  of  the  founder  of  the  Christian  religion  was  a  scene  of 
mercies,  and  his  death  an  act  of  self-devotion ;  if,  to  partake  of  his  glory,  it  is 
needful  to  walk  in  his  footsteps ;  if  the  chief  characteristic  of  his  disciples  is, 
that  they  love  one  another ;  if,  in  celebrating  his  memory,  they  partake  of  the 
same  bread  and  drink  of  the  same  cup, — are  not  these  facts,  truths,  symbols 
eminently  fitted  to  inspire  charity,  to  enforce  its  exercise,  and  to  justify 
the  general  opinion,  which  regards  charity  and  Christianity  as  synonymous 
terms?" 

In  this  connection,  he  speaks  with  commendable  impartiality  of  the 
devoted  kindness  to  the  suffering  of  the  Brethren  de  Saint-Jean  de  Dieu, 
a  Catholic  institution  in  France,  and  insists  that  no  motive  but  those  of 
the  Christian  could  induce  such  devotion  as  is  visible  in  these  brethren 
and  in  many  others  who  give  themselves  to  works  of  charity. 

"We  may  not  flatter  ourselves  that  any  plan  of  private  charity,  however  en- 
lightened, can  ever  succeed,  if  the  easy  classes,  from  whom  the  resources  must 
come,  and  among  whom  also  must  be  found  the  men  to  do  the  work,  are  not 
animated  bj'  the  vivifying  spirit  of  Christianity." 

"We  do  not  mean  here  that  pretended  Christianity  which  consists  in  mere 
faith  or  in  mere  deeds."  ....  "  The  Christianity  we  have  in  view  is  the  religion 
of  Him  who  reduced  the  whole  law  to  the  precepts  of  love  to  God  and  our 
neighbour,  and  who,  in  the  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan,  has  taught  us  who 
is  that  neighbour  whom  we  are  to  love  as  ourselves ;  it  is  the  religion  which 
feeds  the  poor,  consoles  the  aflaicted,  upholds  the  weak,  protects  the  widow  and 
the  orphan, — which  is  the  hope  and  refuge  of  all  the  unhappy, — which,  by  its 
abounding  good  works,  has  exhibited  to  all  people  a  God  of  all  goodness  and 
a  Saviour  who  commenced  the  reign  of  love  on  earth.  It  matters  little  to 
what  sect  those  belong  who  profess  it ;  it  is  not  by  the  opinions  which  divide 
them,  but  by  the  love  which  unites  them,  that  the  title  of  Christians  is  me- 
rited."— Navilk,  vol.  2,  p.  264. 

In  1850,  L.  Lamothe  published,  at  Paris,  New  Studies  upon  Chari- 
table Legislation.     It  is  a  summary,  with  additions,  of  previous  pro- 


NOTES.  347 


ductions  on  the  subject.  He  is  inclined  to  Maltlius  upon  some  points, 
being,  with  him,  opposed  to  compulsory  provision  for  the  poor,  and  be- 
lieving that  population  gains  upon  food,  without  acceding  to  the 
mathematical  formula  in  which  Malthus  states  his  position.  But  in 
his  general  treatment  of  the  subject,  he  is  far  from  Malthusian. 
Himself  engaged  in  the  administration  of  charities,  a  large  experience 
aided  his  investigations.  "In  all  my  studies  and  writings  upon  the 
subject,"  he  remarks,*  "it  will  be  easily  seen  that  one  thought  runs 
through  the  whole, — the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  humbler 
classes."  He  believes  the  time  has  come  when  the  application  of 
the  principles  of  charity  which  the  Scriptures  lay  down  for  the  direc- 
tion of  individuals,  may  be  also  demanded  of  society  at  large.  He 
believes,  with  Messrs.  Dufaure,  Coquerel,  Victor  Hugo,  Faucher,  and 
Thiers,  that  Christianity,  which  has  renovated  the  face  of  the  world 
during  the  last  eighteen  centuries,  ought  to  become  the  base  of  every 
administrative  code, — that  society  should,  within  the  measure  of  its  re- 
sources, and  within  the  limits  which  wisdom  dictates,  come  to  the 
succour  of  individual  misfortune, — that  individual  foresight  and  pru- 
dence should  not  exclude  that  of  the  community, — that  in  matter  of 
aid,  the  public  should  do  all  that  is  possible,  and  attempt  all  that  is 
probable.  The  author  who  expresses  such  sentiments  may  be  for- 
given if,  out  of  sympathy  for  the  school  of  rank  political  economists 
with  whom  he  is  in  amicable  relations,  he  declares  some  accordance 
with  Malthus.  We  have  an  additional  guarantee  for  the  soundness  of 
our  author's  views  in  the  evident  regard  he  entertains  for  the  labours 
of  Edmond  de  Pressense,  a  Protestant  pastor  in  Paris,  who  published 
in  1849, — Conferences  upon  Christianiti/  in  its  Application  to  Social 
Questions, — a  very  profound  work,  which  we  shall  bring  more  specially 
to  the  notice  of  our  readers.  We  subjoin  a  portion  of  the  quotations 
made  from  its  pages  by  M.  Lamothe : 

"  We  reject  the  division  so  frequently  made  of  morals,  into  two  kinds :  the 
one  of  \uiiversal  application;  the  other  for  the  guidance  of  individuals  merely. 
There  is  but  one  priuciple  of  morals ;  its  applications  may  vary ;  it  cannot 
vary  itself.  If  that  principle  is  justice,  absolute  and  exclusive,  it  can  be  obeyed 
by  society  alone.  But  if  we  recognise  charity  as  lying  at  the  base  of  morals, 
we  cannot  conceive  any  reason  why  we  should  not  realize  its  benefits  in  our 
social  institutions.  Is  it  so  that  God  having  forcborne  to  visit  us  with  justice, 
we  are  the  less  inclined  to  exercise  alike  mercy  to  our  fellow-creatures  ?" 

*  Preface. 


348  NOTE  s. 


"If  the  principle  of  charity  is  the  basis  of  morals,  then  the  doctrine  of  pure 
justice  is  no  more  applicable  to  the  sphere  of  the  state  than  in  private  life. 
You  are  apprehensive,  you  say,  that  you  will  diminish  the  occasions  of  indi- 
vidual charity.  Be  not  afraid :  ample  opportunities  will  remain  for  benevolent 
action,  even  if  the  monopoly  is  taken  a^-ay  from  individuals.  For,  as  we  say, 
the  applications  of  charity  differ;  but  one  mode  does  not  exclude  others.  It  is 
to  be  well  considered  what  is  the  special  application  to  be  made  by  the  state ; 
and  to  ascertain  this,  we  must  inquire  what  is  the  providential  mission  as- 
signed to  the  state,  for  within  this  limit  only  must  the  principle  of  charity  be 
applied."  . .  .  .  "  According  to  the  socialists,  the  state  is  charged  with  our 
moral  development — it  ought  to  accomplish  this  for  us,  by  removing  all  obsta- 
cles and  all  temptations.  That  is  the  paternal  government  renewed.  Accord- 
ing.to  the  political  economists,  the  state  is  merely  the  medium  in  which  we 
live :  it  should  hold  itself  apart,  regarding  only  our  crimes,  and  disregarding 
wholly  our  miseries.  There  is  &  juste  milieu  between  these  theories.  The  state 
cannot  assume  the  care  of  our  moral  development,  for  that  is  an  affair  of  con- 
science and  liberty ;  neither  ought  it  to  be  simply  a  power  of  suppression  or 
punishment." 

"  The  state  is  the  sphere  of  our  moral  development."  .  .  . .  "  Social  life, 
while  it  stimulates  our  activity,  might  also  destroy  it,  if  not  under  the  re- 
strictions of  law ;  if  interests  and  passions  were  without  due  restraint ;  if  law 
was  not  substituted  for  the  hazards  of  violence  and  force.  Such  is  the  sublime 
mission  of  the  state.  It  is  the  high  social  object  of  saving  to  every  one  the 
right  of  fulfilling  his  destiny.  Law.  in  this  aspect,  is  the  channel  of  the  possi- 
bility of  duty.  The  state  is  not  only  the  sphere,  it  is  one  of  the  conditions  of 
our  moral  development;  and  it  is  from  this  high  point,  we  ought  to  take 
all  our  departures,  in  seeking  the  providential  ends  of  this  great  institution. 
Let  the  principle  of  charity  once  be  declared  predominant  in  society ,-and  it  is 
clear  that  we  can  no  longer  content  ourselves  with  attributing  to  the  state 
solely  a  negative  mission,  as  would  be  that  of  protecting  individuals  one  from 
another,  and  merely  puting  out  of  the  way  whatever  is  injurious  to  the  moral 
development:  we  may  then  demand  that  this  object  be  directly  promoted." 
....  "The  state  should  render  moral  development  possible  to  all, — nothing 
more,  nothing  less;  and  it  ought  to  be  accomplished  by  the  beneficial  opera- 
tion of  our  social  institutions  as  a  whole.  A  state  constituted  upon  the 
principle  of  charity,  would  enable  every  man  to  fulfil  all  the  duties  of  his 
position, — his  proper  destiny :  that  is,  while  it  respected  his  personal  liberty 
more  than  at  present,  it  would  cover  him  with  the  buckler  of  law  from  undue 
injury  of  any  kind.  Without  liberty,  there  is  no  moral  development,  not  even 
if  the  restraint  is  accompanied  with  large  benefits :  this  indeed,  instead  of  a 
help,  is  an  obstacle  to  improvement." 

"But  there  are  physical  sufferings,  dreadful  privations^  and  growing  inquie- 
tudes, which  break  down  and  materialize  the  soul.  The  raging  appetites  of 
privation  are  as  dangerous  as  the  indulgences  of  luxury.  Yery  well!  A  well 
ordered  state  ought,  by  the  completeness  of  its  adjustments,  to  prevent  these 
perverting  miseries.   It  ought  to  furnish  food,  by  proper  elementary  instruction, 


NOTES.  349 


for  the  mind,  without  which  it  becomes  barren ;  and  food  for  the  bodj',  without 
which  the  finest  systems  of  laws  upon  paper  are  but  illusions  and  treachery. 
In  this  way  alone  can  the  state  be  the  condition  of  our  moral  development ;  and 
thus  far,  we  repeat,  it  should  go,  and  no  farther."' — Conferences,  dc.,  par  Edm, 
Pressensc,  p.  236,  &c. 

In  the  first  chapter  of  his  work,  Lamothe  brings  into  review  some  of 
the  principal  Avriters  on  the  subject,  from  which  review  we  take  a  few 
extracts. 

"  Malthus,  Chalmers,  Duchatel,  Naville, — these  are  the  heads  of  that  school, 
improperly'  enough  called  the  Protestant,  but  which,  in  our  opinion,  had  been 
more  fitly  named  the  rationalist  school.  Its  distinctive  character  consists  in 
imposing  silence  upon  the  language  of  the  heart,  and  proceeding  exclusively 
by  the  light  of  reason  and  the  facts.*  Its  services  are  acknowledged  by  its 
adversaries;  it  has  laid  bare  the  true  principles,  taught  us  to  recognise  them 
and  to  strip  off  the  accessories  which  lead  so  many  from  the  reality." 

Speaking  of  Malthus,  he  says  : — 

"  Is  it  not  he  who  has  best  perceived  the  relations  and  limits  which  exist  be- 
tween the  prudence  which  foresees  misery  and  the  charity  which  relieves  it, — 
the  relation  between  wages  and  the  increase  of  population  ?" 

He  complains  of  Blanqui  for  having,  in  his  History  of  Political 
Economy,  condemned  the  doctrines  of  Malthus,  and  made  the  epithet 
3Ialthusian  one  of  reproach,  without,  however,  substituting  for  his 
doctrines  something  better.  It  is  strange  that  Lamothe  could  not  see 
the  relations  of  Christianity  with  the  subject,  and  the  solutions  it  offers. 
He  and  others  do  Christianity  the  honour  of  a  conspicuous  mention, 
but  they  draw  no  solution  from  Revelation,  and  are  as  far  from  walk- 
ing in  its  light  as  the  Protestants  whom  he  calls  rationalists.  He 
mentions,  next,  a  work  we  had  designed  for  special  examination  in 
these  notes, — Christian  Political  Economy,  or  Researches  into  the 
nature  and  causes  of  Pau]oerism, — the  author  of  which  is  thus  intro- 
duced to  his  readers  by  Lamothe : — 

"  In  face  of  these  writers,  in  the  opposite  camp,  M.  le  Vicnmte  Alban  de  Yille- 
neuve-Bargemout  presents  himself.  He  is  an  apostle  of  the  gospel,  who  sees 
no  remedy  for  the  evils  of  society  but  in  a  strict  observance  of  the  teachings 
of  Christ."  ....  "Christian  charity,  carried  into  public  policy,  into  the  laws, 
into  the  institutions  and  the  manners  of  a  country,  can  alone  preserve  social 

*  We  may  doubt  whether  Dr.  Chalmers  would  have  been  flattered  by  being 
placed  thus  in  the  school  of  rationalists.  Whatever  else  may  justify  this  clas- 
sification, he  canno^,  justly  be  accused  of  silencing  the  language  of  the  heart. 

30 


350  NOTES. 


order  from  the  frightful  dangers  -n-hicli  threaten  it.    Without  this  clement, 
there  is  nothing  but  deceit  and  illusion.''— JVouvcUcs  Etudes,  p.  3.* 

This  important  work  of  Villeneuve-Bargemont  (in  3  vols.  Svo.)  was 
tho  fruit  of  long-continued  and  patient  study  of  the  whole  subject,  and 
of  great  experience  in  the  highest  offices  of  departmental  administra- 
tion in  France.  The  author  is  a  zealous  Catholic,  but  not  to  the  extent 
of  exalting  the  church  above  Christianity.*  The  subject  seemed  to  be 
of  the  very  highest  interest  to  him,  and  he  pursues  it  with  the  ardour 
of  a  true  friend  of  the  human  family.  His  preface  gives  a  frank  his- 
tory of  the  changes  which  his  mind  had  to  undergo  in  his  investiga- 
tions.    We  can  only  transfer  a  few  points. 

"  That  which  has  chiefly  struck  me  in  my  studies,  is  the  dreadful  influence 
which  the  industrial  and  political  system  of  England  has  exercised  over  France, 
Europe,  and  other  portions  of  the  world.  That  system,  based  upon  insatiable 
selfishness  and  vipon  a  profound  contempt  of  human  natixre,  has  been  displayed 
to  my  eyes  with  the  effect  of  exalting  my  sentiment  of  nationality  to  the  highest 
point,  as  will  be  visible  in  this  work ;  but  I  have  tried  to  be  faithful  to  truth, 
and  not  to  injure  or  exaggerate." 

"  In  effect,  real  pauperism,  that  general  distress  or  destitution,  permanent 
and  progressive,  of  the  population,  had  its  birth  in  England,  and  it  is  thence 
the  contagion  has  spread.  For  three  hundred  years  this  power  has  not  ceased 
to  excite  the  love  of  wealth,  luxury,  material  enjoyments ;  a  ruling  aristocracy, 
a  clergy  enriched  with  the  spoils  of  Catholicism,  speculators,  skilful  and 
prompt,  occupying  stations  of  power,  controlling  capital,  property,  and  industry, 
have  not  ceased  to  accvimulate  lands,  and  the  advantages  of  commerce  and 
navigation ; — a  monstrous  centralization  of  fortune  and  the  despotism  of  riches 
contintially  employed  in  extending  its  power  and  possessions; — such  has  been 
the  incessant  advance  of  this  proud  and  greedy  class,  in  their  ascendency  over 
the  population.  It  is  thus  they  everywhere  employ  and  use  the  human  race ; 
and,  whilst  they  are  distinguished  for  improving  the  breeds  of  other  animals, 
they  are  ever  engaged  in  overworking  and  injuring  the  race  and  constitution 
of  their  working  classes.  It  was  not  enough  to  swallow  all  the  wealth  of  Great 
Britain — this  insatiable  cupidity  reaches  forth  to  every  portion  of  the  earth. 
At  any  price  it  must  be  satisfied — violence,  inhumanity,  corruption,  all  this 
and  more  have  in  turn  been  employed  in  ministering  to  this  appetite." 

"  For  a  long  period  the  opulence  of  England  has  dazzled  all  eyes,  and  her 
example  has  seduced  many  other  nations ;  but  at  last  time  and  experience  are 

*  Accompanjing  this  work  of  Lamothe  is  an  extended  bibliography  of  charity 
and  the  kindred  topics,  of  great  value  to  the  student  of  philosophy  and  social 
science. 

t  He  names  among  his  most  intimate  friends,  with  whom  he  consulted  on 
these  topics,  a  Protestant  professor  of  theology  at  Moutauban. — Vol.  i.  p.  9. 


NOTES.  351 


removing  the  veil  which  conceals  the  frightful  misery  of  a  population,*  op- 
pressed, fiimished,  and  pushed  to  the  borders  of  despair." 

"  Publicity  has  revealed  the  excess  of  production ;  the  manufacturing  struggle, 
under  the  impulse  of  unregulated  competition,  is  reacting  with  vigour.  It  is 
plain  the  colossus  is  shaken  ;  an  abyss  is  being  dug  beneath  its  feet."  .... 

"  The  English  system  reposes  upon  the  concentration  of  capital,  of  commerce, 
of  lands,  of  industry,  of  indefinite  production,  of  universal  competition,  upon 
the  reduction  of  wages,  and,  finally,  upon  the  moral  degradation  of  man." 

"Let  us  found  our  French  system  upon  a  just  and  wise  distribution  of  the 
products  of  industry ;  upon  the  equitable  remuneration  of  labour ;  upon  the 
development  of  agriculture ;  upon  our  industry,  applied  to  the  products  of  our 
own  soil ;  upon  the  religious  regeneration  of  man ;  and,  finally,  upon  the  great 
principle  of  charity." — Econ.  Pol.  Chret.  preface,  vol.  i.  p.  22. 

The  motto  of  the  introduction  is  quoted  from  Droz,  and  runs  ttius: — 

"  In  reading  certain  economists,  one  might  be  led  to  think  that  the  products 
of  industry  were  not  made  for  man,  but  that  man  was  made  for  the  products." 

The  first  lines  of  the  introduction  are  as  follow : — 

"  Individual  poverty,  that  is  privation  more  or  less  absolute  of  the  necessa- 
ries of  life,  is  a  position  so  painful,  that  the  natural  sympathy  between  man 
and  his  fellow  compels  us  to  yield  our  compassion ;  it  is,  in  the  eyes  of  religion, 
a  suffering  of  which  Heaven  enjoins  upon  us  the  solace,  wherever  it  exists;  it 
is  a  physical  and  moral  degradation,  for  which  the  interests  of  society  requii-e 
a  remedy." 

He  distinguishes  between  that  isolated  and  transient  poverty  arising 
from  the  very  nature  of  man,  the  relative  inferiority  of  physical  strength 
and  of  intelligence,  the  inequality  of  social  position,  and  other  inevitable 
evils  incident  to  the  differences  between  men,  and  that  "indigence  which 
passes  under  the  new  and  sacUy  energetic  name  of  pauperism,  which  in- 
vades entire  classes  of  the  population,  and  tends  to  increase  at  the  rate 
of  the  industrial  production."  "If  this,"  he  remarks,  "is  not  an  accident 
of  society,  but  a  condition  of  life  forced  upon  large  portions  of  the  com- 
munity, it  cannot  be  a  mistake  to  find  in  these  symptoms  of  suffering, 
thus  diffused  in  the  body  politic,  a  disease,  deep-seated,  and  menacing 
the  approach  of  severe  and  i^erhaps  fatal  distui'bance  to  the  whole 
social  system  thus  affected." — Vol.  i.  p.  27. 

It  would  be  interesting,  as  well  as  profitable  to  the  heart  and  to  the 
understanding,  to   follow   this   truly   humane   and   Christian   writer 

*  A  population  worked  for  the  benefit  of  foreign,  not  domestic  trade ;  for  the 
benefit  of  merchants,  not  of  the  producers;  for  foreign,  not  home  consumption; 
for  cheap  production,  that  foreigners  may  purchase ;  but  at  the  lowest  wages, 
that  the  producers  may  not  consume. — [Ikli^or.] 


352  NOTES. 


through  all  the  volumes  of  a  work  conceived  in  a  spirit  so  charitable, 
making  extracts  as  we  proceed ;  but  we  must  forbear,  and  merely  in- 
dicate an  outline  of  his  topics. 

The  first  volume  treats  of  tlie  reUgioiis  view  of  indigence  /  the  in- 
equality of  men;  theories  of  civilization ;  of  progress ;  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  population  ;  celihacy  of  priesthood  ;  of  labour;  of  the  j)^'o- 
duction,  distribution,  and  consumption  of  riches ;  profits  and  icages ; 
agricultural  industry ;  manufacturing  industry ;  machinery;  the  new 
feudal  system  ;  commercial  industry  ;  St.  Simonism ;  taxes;  hixury  ; 
ignorance  and  immorality  of  the  working  classes  ;  political  revolutions. 

The  second  volume  treats  of  the  condition  and  number  of  the  indi- 
gent and  of  beggars  in  Europe  ;  of  charity  and  its  ajiplication, private 
and  public  ;  of  legislation  in  regard  to  the  indigent. 

The  third  volume  is  devoted  to  charitable  institutions ;  the  revision 
of  the  poor-laics  ;  and  to  agricidtiire,  considered  as  a  means  of  reliev- 
ing and  preventing  indigence. 

He  takes  leave  of  his  readers  on  the  last  page  by  saying,  whilst 
lamenting  the  deficiencies  of  his  work, — 

"  Our  intentions,  however,  will  be  understood  and  our  efforts  appreciated  by 
those  who  have  studied  the  moral  causes  and  effects  of  misery,  and  reflected 
upon  the  means  of  prevention.  Besides,  our  ambition  will  be  satisfied  if  we 
shall  awaken  the  attention  of  any  of  the  governments  of  Europe  to  questions 
so  vital  to  the  present  epoch;  if  we  shall  have  aided  in  disseminating  useful 
truths ;  and  above  all,  if  we  shall  have  excited  a  spirit  of  charity  in  some 
Christian  hearts." 

"  May  that  which  we  have  been  able  merely  to  indicate,  be  completed  and 
perfected  by  abler  hands.  The  age  is  ripe  to  comprehend  that  social  order 
must  be  based  on  laws,  and  confined  within  limits  traced  by  an  Almighty 
hand.  To  acknowledge  this  eternal  truth,  to  return  to  our  obedience  to  its  dic- 
tates, that  is  the  progress  which  ought  to  characterize  our  day,  and  for  which 
we  shall  not  cease  to  pray  whilst  we  desire  to  promote  human  happiness." — 
Vol.  iii.  p.  5S4. 

We  should  gladly  extend  our  notices  to  other  French  works  upon 
charity  which  are  lying  round  us,  making  such  extracts  as  might 
characterize  them,  but  it  would  far  exceed  our  limits. 

Thece  is  another  class  of  productions  of  great  interest  which  we 
must  pass  over,  devoted  exclusively  to  the  topics  of  j^fii'l^crism,  the 
poor,  the  tcretched,  the  dangerous,  the  disinherited  classes,  the  misery 
of  the  working  classes,  &g.  :  the  titles  of  many  of  these,  of  great  merit 
and  breathing  the  very  soul  of  humanity,  and  not  unfrequently,  also, 
the  very  spirit  of  Christianity,  will  be  found  in  the  preceding  catalogue. 


NOTES.  353 


V/e  must  not,  however,  omit  all  mention  of  those  whieli  go  to  show 
that,  while  humanity  and  Christian  sympathies  are  so  intelligently  ex- 
cited in  France  in  favor  of  the  suffering,  efforts  are  not  wanting  in 
the  direction  of  a  more  enlarged  treatment  of  the  whole  subject,  and 
in  the  way  of  prevention  of  evils,  as  well  as  their  cure.     A  discussion 
has  been  actively  proceeding  in  France  for  many  years,  which,  until 
very  recently,  could  not  be  touched,  much  less  endured,  in  England 
nor  in  the  United  States.     The  fact  that  the  labouring  classes— the 
great  mass  of  producers,  to  whose  industry  we  arc  chiefly  indebted  for 
our  material  comforts — do  not  receive  a  just  remuneration  of  their 
labour,  and  do  not  enjoy  their  proper  share  of  the  blessings  which 
social  institutions  should  afford,  is  freely  admitted  in  France,  and  the 
best  minds  of  that  country  are  devoting  their  energies  and  acumen 
to  the  solution  of  the  great  problem  involved  in  the  just  reward  of 
labour.     They  no  longer  meet  this  great  question  with  the  estoppels, 
that  the  poor  will  always  be  with  us,  and  that  inequalities  of  condition 
are  inevitable :  they  feel  the  necessity,  having  granted  the  truth  of 
these  propositions,  of  inquiring,  nevertheless,  what  can  be  done  to 
diminish  the  number  of  the  poor,  and  to  render  inevitable  inequalities 
as  tolerable  as  possible.     They  admit  the  necessity  of  seeking  the  clue 
to  the  true  and  just  organization  of  labour,  so  that  he  who  toils  to  earn 
a  subsistence  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow  may  have  some  assurance  that 
an  undue  portion  of  the  avails  of  his  labour  shall  not  go  to  those  who 
do  not  labour  at  all.     It  would  require  large  space  to  bring  before  our 
readers  even  a  slight  indication  of  what  has  been  written  on  this 
subject.     It  is  well  known  that  French  authors  have  led  the  way  in 
a  change  of  historical  writing,  which  is  not  only  highly  popular,  but 
eminently  philosophical  and  instructive — that  of  giving  the  history  of 
people  and  their  condition  in  past  times,  as  well  as  the  history  of  wars, 
of  kings,   of  nobles,  and  of  generals.     This  historical  research  has 
been  applied  specially  to  the  subject  of  labour  and  labourers,  with  a 
constant  view  to  the  best  interests  of  humanity.     We  might  show  what 
has  been  done  by  Thierry,  Michelet,   Guizot,  and  others,  but  their 
productions  are  sufficiently  known  and  appreciated.     We  shall  mention 
a  few  less  known,  but  whose  efforts  have  been  exclusively  applied  to 
the  subject.     We  refer  with  pleasure,  among  them,  to  one  of  signal 
ability  and  learning — The  History  of  the  Working  Classes  and  the  Town's 
People,  hij  Adolphe  Granier  de  Cassagnac,  published  in  1837.     It  was 
apparently  intended  as  an  introduction  to  a  more  extended  work,  but 
we  have  met  with  no  continuation.     It  forms  in  its  present  state,  a 

30* 


354  NOTES. 


very  appropriate  introduction  to  the  history  of  the  world,  espe- 
cially of  the  European  world,  and  those  countries  of  antiquity  from 
which  European  civilization  and  institutions  were  derived.  After 
pointing  out  the  deficiencies  of  history  in  regard  to  the  masses,  the 
author  enters  upon  his  task  of  a  brief,  strong,  and  bold  outline  of  the 
changes  of  condition  which  these  masses  have  passed  through  in 
various  stages  of  the  progress  of  humanity.  His  sketch  includes,  of 
course,  the  history  of  slavery  before  the  advent  of  Christianity,  be- 
fore which  time,  he  says,  the  justice  of  the  relation  was  never  seriously 
questioned;  and  also  after  Christianity,  the  progress  of  which  for  seve- 
ral centuries  was  marked  by  the  emancipation  of  immense  multitudes 
of  slaves,  although  neither  Christ  nor  his  apostles  denounced  it  as  in- 
consistent with  their  teachings.  These  enfranchisements,  made  with 
more  kindness  than  prudence,  he  shows  to  have  been  the  fruitful 
source  of  crime,  misery,  and  degradation,  among  those  who  were  freed 
from  compulsory  service,  but  not  admitted  to  the  full  level  of  freemen, 
nor  placed  in  a  position  where  their  labour  would  command  a  just  re- 
muneration. He  shows  that  the  worst  of  the  European  population  are 
descendants  of  emancipated  slaves,  who,  as  a  body,  have  sunk  below 
the  level  of  slavery,  and  have  never  been  able  to  emerge  into  a  better 
situation  under  European  institutions.  The  crimes  of  slaves  in  the 
Roman  Empire  were  far  fewer  than  in  the  same  number  of  the  lower 
classes  of  modern  Europe.  Freedom  from  personal  servitude  in 
Christian  Europe  does  not  raise  the  masses  to  the  level  of  slaves  in 
the  Roman  Empire.  This  is  illustrated  and  shown  by  a  vast  number 
of  references  and  proofs,  which  make  a  strong  impression  of  his  cor- 
rectness. We  must  add,  as  the  result  of  our  own  investigations,  that 
the  feudal  slaves  liberated  in  England  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries, 
sank  after  their  liberation  to  the  condition  of  paupers,  from  which,  as 
a  body,  they  have  never  emerged.  Something  more  than  liberty  is 
due  from  the  master  to  the  slave,  from  the  community  to  its  poor, 
and  from  man  to  his  neighbour.  Our  author  dwells  upon  the  rise  of 
the  commune,  the  isolated  castles  of  the  nobles,  the  cities,  villages, 
and  walled  towns  of  the  people,  the  history  of  property,  and  the  his- 
tory of  the  peasantry,  so  completely  forgotten  by  historians.  But  we 
cannot  enumerate  the  topics  of  a  work  so  condensed.  It  is  rich  in  al- 
lusion to  the  Bible,  of  which  the  author  had  an  enlightened  compre- 
hension, rich  in  classical  allusion,  in  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities,  in 
knowledge  of  the  civil  law,  in  church  history,  and  in  the  history  of 
European  civilization. 


NOTES.  355 


The  History  of  the  Working  Class,  from  the  Slave  to  the  Proletatre  of 
■our  Bay,  a  work  in  four  super-royal  octavo  volumes,  by  Egbert  (Du 
Vak,)  Paris,  1847,  is  a  production  evidently  dictated  by  an  extreme 
regard  for  the  best  interests  of  the  class  of  whom  it  treats.  The  first 
words  of  the  author  are  : — 

"The  increasing  diffusion  of  knowledge,  by  awakening  the  sentiment  of  jus- 
tice in  souls  the  most  withered,  is  extending  daily  the  discovery  of  what  is 
painful  and  grievous  in  the  situation  of  the  labouring  classes.  God  forbid  that 
any  should  be  hereafter  astonished  that  those  who  produce  so  much  and  con- 
sume so  little  should  insist,  by  all  possible  arguments,  upon  the  amelioration 
of  their  condition!  This  general  feeling  is  to  the  thinking  man  a  prophecy.  It 
is  the  solemn  guarantee  of  the  early  emancipation  of  labour." 

After  enlarging  upon  the  importance  of  the  history  proposed,  he 
proceeds : —  • 

"  The  very  idea  raises  grave  and  capital  questions  :  we  inquire  at  once,  by 
what  great  and  terrible  deviation  from  justice,  human  society  has  become  so 
disturbed  and  so  badly  adjusted  as  to  produce,  for  some  only,  wealth,  leisure, 
liberty,  and  comfort,  while  leaving  to  the  greater  number  only  labour,  misery, 
and  all  the  ills  of  slavery?     Whence  springs  this  disinherited  class?" 

Robert  does  not  accord  to  slavery  so  high  an  antiquity  as  Granier  de 
Cassagnac,  but  believes  "there  was  a  time  when  man  was  net  the 
servant  of  man ;  when  every  one,  living  for  himself,  made  his  own 
wants  his  master,  and  gathered  without  hindrance  the  fruits  of  his  own 
industry ;"  but  he  traces  the  poverty  and  misery  of  the  masses  at  this 
day  to  ancient  slavery. 

"  We  have  looked  upon  the  toil  of  the  slave  of  antiquity,  the  serf  of  the 
middle  ages,  and  the  labourers  of  modern  times,  and  have  set  forth  their  reward 
in  each  period.  We  have  lifted  the  veil  at  each  epoch  which  conceals  the 
misery  of  the  working  classes ;  we  have  not  feared  to  descend  to  those  minutiae 
which,  however  apparently  unimportant,  are  the  real  index  of  their  condition ; 
we  have  inquired,  along  the  progress  of  ages,  how  they  were  nourished,  lodged, 
and  clothed,  whose  industry  produced  the  food,  built  the  houses,  and  manu- 
factured the  clothing." 

'=  But  the  labourer,  although  a  labourer,  is  yet  a  man  in  the  fullest  extent  of 
the  word,  and  as  such  he  exists  in  the  presence  of  the  body  politic.  Citizen  or 
not,  the  state,  by  the  fact  of  his  existence,  is  obliged  to  recognise  his  presence— 
to  pronounce  upon  him ;— hence  the  historian  must  take  account  of  this  legis- 
lation. From  the  definition  of  slavery  by  pagan  laws  to  the  legislation  of  the 
present  day,  by  which  the  working-men  are  excluded  from  all  voice  in  the 
direction  of  their  own  interests,  and  completely  exiled  fi-om  the  path  of  power, 
we  have  noticed  and  numbered  the  charges  which  legislation  has  brought 
against  them,  the  penalties  it  has  inflicted,  and  the  thousand  chains  in  which 
it  has  held  them  bound." 


356  NOTES. 


"Of  course,  we  have  followed  step  by  step  the  intellectua.  compression 
to  which  they  have  been  so  long  subjected,  their  consequent  ignorance,  and 
their  dangerous  prejudices :  to  give  these  facts  full  relief,  we  have  disclosed 
the  different  methods  of  education  and  training  successively  applied  to  the 
masses." 

'•Consolation  is  not  wanting! — as  we  advance  to  modern  times,  humanity, 
pushed  on  by  the  invincible  cravings  of  its  nature,  appears  to  comprehend  its 
old  error.  The  revolts  of  the  ancient  slaves  against  their  masters,  those  of 
the  serfs  of  the  middle  ages  against  their  lords,  had  for  their  chief  motive  anger, 
vengeance,  and  other  hateful  passions.  Modern  labourers  begin  to  call  to  their 
aid  philosophy  and  science  ;  the  organization  of  industry  and  the  application 
of  the  principle  of  human  brotherhood  are  the  ideal  which  now  stimulates  the 
working  classes.  After  having  revolved  for  ages  in  the  fatal  circle  of  individu- 
alism, of  war  and  contention,  a  necessity  for  harmony  begins  to  be  felt  where 
irritation  would  be  most  excusable — order  and  peace  begin  to  be  sought  in  the 
arena  of  the  interests  of  all." 

These  extracts  are  from  the  introduction.  The  field  surveyed  in 
this  work  is  so  extensive  that  we  cannot  even  enumerate  the  topics. 
His  notice  of  the  influence  of  Christianity  in  procuring  the  enfranchise- 
ment of  slaves  is  interesting  : — 

"  Certainly,  that  influence  was  remarkable.  To  pass  from  paganism  to  Chris- 
tianity was  to  pass  from  slavery  to  liberty." — Yol.  i.  p.  247. 

He  examines  the  effects  of  slavery  upon  the  habits  and  history  of 
the  enfranchised,  and  concedes  that  the  blessing  of  liberty  was  far 
from  an  unmingled  benefit.  His  details  upon  this  head  are  of  great 
interest,  but  his  views  of  the  whole  subject  are  less  broad  than  those 
of  Granier  de  Cassagnac. 

In  the  progress  of  his  work  he  details,  with  evident  satisfaction,  the 
career  of  the  great  reformer  Wicklifi"e,  who  attacked  the  Romish 
hierarchy  with  so  much  boldness  and  vigour ;  he  tells  us,  that  re- 
former disputed  the  theory  of  property,  which  was  prevailing  then  in 
England,  and  insisted  that  the  great  wealth  of  the  clergy  was  wholly 
inconsistent  with  their  character,  and  that  those  who  would  be  minis- 
ters of  Christ  must  follow  his  example  of  poverty  and  personal  kind- 
ness to  the  poor.  He  claims  Wickliflfe  as  an  apostle  of  humanity, 
holding  views  in  accordance  with  those  of  modern  reformers,  and  then 
proceeds  to  show  at  length  that  John  Huss  followed  him  closely  in 
these  views.  (Vol.  iii.  p.  356  and  386.) 

Our  author  takes  a  wide  distinction  between  the  Protestant  Refor- 
mation of  Luther  and  his  colleagues,  and  the  reforms  proposed  by 
Wickliflfe  and  Huss.     The  reforms  of  the  former  were  merely  aimed 


NOTES.  •  357 


at  the  abuses  of  the  Romisli  Church,  while  the  hitter  contemplated 
also  social  amelioi-ation.  The  noblesse  and  the  rich  could  readily  co- 
alesce with  Luther's  principles;  but  they  would  have  been  slow  to  sus- 
tain those  of  the  two  earlier  reformers,  who  contemplated  measures 
for  the  temporal  benefit  of  the  masses.  He  shows  the  bearing  of  the 
wars  of  the  peasants,  which  followed  the  teachings  of  IIuss  and  the 
doctrines  of  the  Anabaptists,  on  social  questions. 

This  work  has  great  value  as  a  history,  and  for  the  details  it  fur- 
nishes upon  subjects  yet  very  far  from  being  exhausted ;  its  leanings 
are,  however,  plainly  to  some  form  of  socialism.  This  proclivity  does 
not  often  mar  the  course  of  the  history,  and  is  only  made  clear  in  the 
fourth  volume,  in  which  he  reviews  the  plans  of  various  schools  of 
socialists.  He  insists  that,  whatever  may  be  their  errors  and  their 
want  of  agreement  among  themselves,  they  have  rendered  the  cause  of 
humanity  essential  services.  He  avers  that  they  only  have  rightly 
framed  the  problem  of  social  amendment,  which,  alone,  is  a  long  step 
towards  a  correct  solution.  He  evidently  believes  the  solution  will  come 
from  the  side  of  the  socialists,  and  that  the  strongest  guarantee  of  the 
success  of  social  reform  is  the  prevalence  of  modified  views  upon  the 
subject.* 

The  great  problem  of  adjusting  the  relations  of  human  labour  to 
human  well-being  has  been  met  in  France,  with  more  or  less  zeal,  by 
all  schools  of  politicians,  philosophers,  and  writers  :  all  are  not  equally 
enlightened,  nor  equally  liberal,  but  alj  admit  the  urgency  of  the  in- 
quiry, and  all  contribute  some  aid  to  the  solution.  The  political 
economists  have  shown  great  activity  of  the  pen,  perceiving  that  their 
craft  was  in  danger  from  any  direct  inquiry  into  what  would  most 
promote  human  welfare.  They  have  yielded  to  the  pressure  of  the 
time  whatever  they  can  surrender  without  destruction  of  their  theory 
of  the  tcealtJi  of  nations. 

It  might  be  as  profitable  as  agreeable  to  enter  into  an  examination 
of  the  large  number  of  works  published  in  France,  within  the  last 
twenty  years,  on  the  subject  of  labour,  the  liberty  of  labour,  the  or- 
ganization of  labour,  the  right  of  labour,  the  laws  of  labour ;  but  the 

*  We  are  absolutely  compelled  to  refrain  from  extending  these  notices  by  the 
space  they  are  consuming,  thus  leaving  unnoticed  the  productions  of  many 
writers  of  great  power  and  research.  As  the  discussion  proceeds,  it  is  instruc- 
tive to  watch  the  advance  which  the  later  %7riters  are  making  under  the  advan- 
tages and  the  light  derived  from  their  predecessors.  But  wc  must  forego  the 
profit  as  well  as  the  pleasure  of  such  an  examination. 


358  NOTES. 


greatness  of  the  task  and  the  narrowness  of  our  limits  forbid.*  The 
phrases  thus  employed  and  made  the  subjects  of  elaborate  and  pro- 
found inquiry,  are  ridiculed  in  England,  and  even  in  this  country,  as 
implying  impossibilities,  or  nonsense,  or  socialism.  In  France,  hu- 
manity is  placed,  in  importance,  above  human  institutions  and  lavrs ; 
or  it  is  acknowledged  as  their  object.  In  Great  Britain  and  in  the 
United  States,  it  is  assumed  that  our  institutions  and  laws  are  perfect, 
or  so  nearly  perfect  that  any  consideration  of  mere  humanity,  or  bene- 
ficence, which  interferes  with  them,  or  calls  for  their  amendment,  is 
regarded  as  the  puling  conception  of  a  visionary.  Such  a  man,  in  the 
estimation  of  men  of  the  world,  is  unacquainted  with  the  stern  and 
inevitable  realities  of  life;  he  is  a  labourer  at  that  which  is  impracti* 
cable,  and  is  rather  to  be  pitied  for  his  ignorance  than  encouraged  in 
his  investigations.  Such,  in  the  main,  is  the  language  of  the  Protes- 
tant ministry  and  the  religious  press,  who  very  promptly  extinguish 
all  such  inquiries  as  belonging  to  the  domain  of  socialism  or  com- 
munism, for  which  the  horror  exceeds  that  which  is  felt  for  mere  infi- 
delity. For,  certainly,  German  infidelity  is  tolerated  in  many  libraries 
for  the  sake  of  its  learning,  where  works  of  socialism  would  not  be 
admitted  for  the  sake  of  humanity. 

*  We  refer  to  the  following,  as  well  deserving  the  attention  of  the  inquirer : — 

The  lAherty  of  Labour ;  an  exposition  of  the  conditions  under  which  human 
powers  are  exerted  with  the  most  ej/ect.  By  Charles  Dunoyer.  3  vols.  8vo.,  Paris, 
1845. 

Essay  upon  the  Organization  of  Labour,  and  the  Future  of  the  Working  Classes. 
By  Theo.  Morin.  1  vol.  8vo.,  Paris,  1845. 

The  Laios  of  Labour.  By  Gustavus  Dupuynode.   1  vol.  8vo.,  Paris,  1845. 

The  Right  of  Labour.  A  complete  collection  of  the  speeches  made  at  the  National 
Assembly  on  that  suhject.    1  vol.  8vo.,  Paris,  1848. 

Essay  upon  the  Relations  of  Labour  to  Capital.  By  Ch.  Dupont  White.  1  vol. 
8vo.,  Paris,  1846. 


N  0  T  E  s.  359 


SOCIALISM. 

This  word,  in  its  commonly  misapplied  signification,  may  denote 
sufficiently  the  subject  of  the  following  remarks.  If  we  have  not 
already  brought  forward  the  writings  of  French  socialists,  it  is  not 
because  we  have  overlooked  them,  nor  because  we  regard  them  as  de- 
void of  interest  and  instruction.,^  We  belong  laot  to  that  school  which 
regards  with  a  seemingly  pious  scorn  all  that  passes  under  the  name 
of  socialism, — we  are  afraid  to  say  even  to  the  socialist,  "  Stand  by, 
for  I  am  holier  than  thou."  ^  We  look  upon  the  whole  socialist  move- 
ment as  one  of  the  greatest  events  of  this  age.  We  believe  no  man 
can  understand  the  progress  of  humanity  or  its  present  tendencies 
who  does  not  make  himself,  to  some  extent,  acquainted  with  the  teach- 
ings of  socialism,  and  does  not  watch  its  movements.  It  is  regarded 
by  many,  and  especially  by  Protestant  divines,  as  a  war  upon  Chris- 
tianity. This  betrays  ignorance,  not  only  of  socialism,  but  of  human 
nature,  and  a  sad  misconception  of  Christianity  itself.  It  is  true,  that 
a  large  mass  of  the  socialists  of  France  are  not  Christians,  and  that 
many  of  them  openly  express  their  disbelief;  and  it  is  just  as  true 
that  many  among  us  are  not  Christians  who  never  scoflF;  and  many 
more  live  in  open  and  direct  violation  of  Christ's  injunctions  of  love 
and  mercy,  who  make  the  loudest  professions  of  Christianity.  It  is 
true  enough  that  socialists  are  in  error  in  many  material  or  vital 
points,  but  they  are  earnestly  seeking  truth  according  to  their  oppor- 
tunities and  light.  We  hesitate  not  to  aver  that,  in  other  material 
points,  the  Protestant  communities  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  under  the  fuller  light  of  the  gospel,  hold  to  errors  as  fatal  in 
their  final  issue. 

Let  us  inquire  a  little  into  the  origin  and  nature  of  this  sociaUst 
movement.  Every  one  knows  the  condition  of  the  human  family 
under  Grecian  and  Roman  domination.  It  may  be  expressed,  for  our 
present  purpose,  in  two  words,  slavery  and  war.  Christianity 
greatly  ameliorated  the  operation  of  these  evils  of  humanity.  But 
this  amelioration  was  incomplete  when  Christianity  was  swallowed  up 
by  a  combination  of  priestcraft  and  paganism,  and  a  long  night  of 
superstition,  with  slavery  of  body  and  mind,  fell  upon  all  Christendom. 
There  was  no  relief  for  the  masses,  until  the  Reformation  came  and 
placed  the  Bible  in  the  hands  of  the  laity.  The  Reformation  itself 
ended  in  mere  Protestantism,  in  which  the  chief  advantage  left  to  the 


360  NOTES. 


people  vras   the   possession   of  the   sacred  volume.      Darkness  still 
brooded  over  the  people  of  Europe,  for  part  remained  steeped  in  the 
errors  of  the  Papacy,  and  part  were   stuffed  with  the   dry  husks  of 
Protestant    theology.      But    the   light   of    the   gospel   continued   to 
brighten,  until  something  of  its  power  was  seen  in  Great  Britain,  and 
a  more  dazzling  display  was  exhibited  in  the  United  States.     How- 
ever far  short  these  exemplifications  came  of  the  requirements  of  the 
gospel,  they  attracted  the  attention  of  the  world.     Those  who  were 
suffering  every  manner  of  evil,  under  institutions  framed  by  priestly 
cunning,  unholy  ambition,  and  political  misrule,  when  the  benign  pre- 
cepts of  the  Saviour  began  by  degrees  to  reach  them,  when  they  began 
to  realize,  from  the  examples  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
that  men  might  think  for  themselves  and  estimate  their  own  rights, 
perceived  very  soon  that  they  were  unjustly  treated,  that  they  were 
not  admitted  to  their  proper  position  in  the  scale  of  humanity,  and 
that  they  were  not  permitted  to  make  their  own  industry  as  available 
for  their  own  benefit  and  comfort  as  justice  required.     Resentment 
against  their  supposed  oppressors  was  not  slow  in  following  this  view 
of  their   condition ;    priests,  kings,  rulers,  and   institutions  became 
alike  the  objects  of  a  hatred  which  became  indiscriminate  in  propor- 
tion as  it  became  violent.     As  the  Papal  priesthood  assumed  to  have 
all  Christianity  in  their  hands,  religion  itself  came  in  for  a  share  of  its 
dislike;  for  these  people  cried  out.  What  has  religion  done  for  us? 
They  had  bitter  experience  that  the  dignitaries  of  the  church  were,  as 
greedy  of  money,  and  of  power,  as  the  functionaries  of  civil  authority. 
It  is  not  very  surprising  that  they  began  a  vigorous  opposition  against 
all  that,  in  their  view,  was  inimical  to  their  interests.     They  could  not 
acquiesce  in  doctrines,  moral,  political,  or  religious  under  colour  of  which 
humanity  sviffcred  such  inflictions :  they  resisted  the  religion,  the  law, 
and  the  philosophy  which  gave  birth  to  such  doctrines  and  practices. 
They  entered  the  field  of  theory  and  speculation,  to  find  if  by  inves- 
tigation they  could  deduce  laws  for  their  protection  and  guidance  more 
in    consonance  with  humanity.     Being  wholly  unembarrassed  with 
prejudices  in  favour  of  antiquity,  or  indeed  in  favour  of  any  existing  in- 
stitution, they  entered  with  sharp  appetites  upon  the  discussion  of  all 
abuses  of  power,  religious  and  political ;  they  held  a  sharp  and  un- 
swerving knife  as  they  proceeded  to  the  dissection  of  Papal  and  civil 
institutions,  against  which  they  held  a  grudge  so  serious ;  they  sub- 
jected modern  society,  with  its  accumulations  of  errors,  to  a  scrutiny  far 
more  severe  and  searching  than  it  had  ever  encountered.     A  great 


NOTES.  361 


diversity  of  conclusions  resulted  from  this  spirit  of  inquiry — this 
active  and  unsparing  investigation ;  and  this  army  of  social 
philosophers  became  separated  into  many  camps.  They  quarrelled 
with  those  around  them,  and  especially  with  those  above  them; 
but  they  were  also  far  from  agreeing  among  themselves.  They 
received,  finally,  the  name  of  socialists,  a  term  intended  to  convey 
a  characteristic  of  the  whole.  Properly  explained,  it  is  sufficiently 
significant  i-r^they  are  a  body  of  men  who  deem  themselves  injured ; 
they  point  to  the  causes  of  their  sufferings  in  the  church  and  state, 
and  demand  a  remedy ;  they  insist  that  society  is  bound  to  amend . 
their  social  position.  They  insist  that  no  institutions  can  be  Avise  or 
just  which  encourage  or  permit  oppression — which  fail  of  giving  fair 
scope  to  industry  and  knowledge — which  do  not,  as  far  as  practicable, 
secure  to  labour  its  i)roper  reward,  and  to  knowledge  and  enterprise 
an  open  field  and  due  defence.  It  is  true  that  those  upon  whom  these 
doctrines  have  brought  the  epithet  of  socialists,  have  run  into  wild 
errors  and  mistaken  theories,  and  many  of  them,  perhaps,  into  absurd 
and  crazy  conceptions.  But  the  mistakes  of  some,  or  all,  by  no  means 
set  aside  or  nullify  the  irrefutable  truths  they  have  announced.  It 
is  sheer  nonsense  to  attempt  to  crush  these  truths  by  the  cry  of  social- 
ism ;  it  is  worse  than  nonsense  not  to  know  and  appreciate  truths 
which  have  already  spread  far  and  wide  beyond  the  ranks  of  the 
socialists.  It  is  a  pitiable  ignorance  which  chooses  to  remain  blind  to 
light  which  is  guiding  great  multitudes  as  they  pass  before  you.  It 
is  a  stubborn  and  wicked  conservatism  which  is  rooted  to  one  spot  in 
this  world  of  evil,  refusing  to  believe  in  any  thing  better,  scouting 
humanity  as  a  dream,  not  conceding  to  Christianity  the  triumphs  which 
are  assured  by  its  own  promises,  offering  to  Christ  this  present  world 
as  now  exhibited,  or  none, — not  perceiving  that  the  social,  political,  and 
commercial  institutions  of  the  present  day,  founded  upon  and  sus- 
tained by  a  selfishness  heretofore  unequalled,  are  the  great  barriers  to 
the  progress  of  Christianity.  The  works  of  the  socialists  have  exposed 
this  hideous  skeleton  of  selfishness — they  have  pursued  it  with  un- 
faltering hatred ;  and  this  constitutes  our  main  obligation  to  them. 
Our  language  to  them  should  not  be  that  of  scorn  or  denunciation ; 
it  should  be  that  of  sympathy  in  their  desire  of  truth,  and  compassion 
for  their  sufferings  and  their  errors.  They  do  desire  to  learn  :  to  them 
every  question  is  open :  they  have  burst  away  from  the  chains  of  su- 
perstition, false  morals,  and  false  social  science.  Who  is  able  or  pre- 
pared to  instruct  them?     Will  not  Christians  step  forwax'd  and  show 

31 


362  NOTES. 


them  that  the  equality  and  the  brotherhood  and  mutual  kindness 
which  they  seek  are  all  embraced  in  that  very  Christianity,  which 
they  have  rejected,  because  they  never  knew  it.  /Do  not  the  teachings 
of  Christ  contain  all,  and  far,  far  more  of  the  benefits  they  seek  than 
their  highest  wishes  ever  reached  ?  It  cannot  for  a  moment  be 
denied  that  if  Christians, — all  who  are  called  such,  made  even  a  fair 
approach  to  the  precepts  of  Christ  in  their  lives  and  conversation, 
the  abuses  of  which  socialists  complain  and  the  sufferings  to  which 
the  poor  arc  subjected  coidd  no  longer  disgrace  Christianity  and  out- 
rage humanity^ 

While  we  lament  that  the  socialists  have  injured  their  cause  by  in- 
dulsinjr  in  vararies  at  once  absurd  and  wicked,  we  lament  still  more 
that  those  who  assume  to  know  so  much  better, — those  who  do  know 
better, — those  who  have  read  the  benign  injunctions  of  Christ, — should 
have  so  far  erred  in  life  and  teaching  as  not  to  have  exhibited  to  the 
socialists  a  living  exemplification  of  that  kindness,  that  mercy,  that 
chai-ity,  that  justice,  that  equality,  that  brotherhood  for  which  they 
sigh.  Can  any  one  doubt  that  such  examples  would  attract  the  eyes 
and  the  admiration  of  all  the  socialists  and  well-wishers  of  humanity 
in  the  world?  Can  any  one  doubt  that  such  an  example  would  correct 
the  theories  and  repress  and  set  right  the  erroneous  speculations,  now 
on  all  sides  so  rife,  in  regard  to  social  progress  ?  Such  an  argument 
would  go  farther  to  reclaim  the  socialists  who  are  opposed  to  religion, 
than  all  the  works  on  theology  extant.  It  does  not  meet  the  objections 
which  they  offer,  when  the  Catholic  priesthood  say  to  them  that  they 
must  not  oppose  the  authority  of  the  church,  that  the  church  will 
take  care  of  them,  that  she  will  make  up  in  alms  what  may  be  wanting 
for  their  sustenance  from  the  avails  of  industry.  Nor  is  the  case  made 
better  when  they  are  told  by  Protestants  that  their  position  is  the  one 
assigned  them  in  the  order  of  Providence,  which  cannot  be  changed 
nor  resisted  without  fatal  consequences  ;  that  their  misery  and  suffer- 
ings are  the  natural  results  of  that  depravity  inherent  in  our  nature 
and  inherited  from  our  first  parents,  and  that  we  can  no  more  banish 
wretchedness  and  poverty  than  we  can  eradicate  original  sin.  Neither 
do  the  political  economists  meet  the  case  by  urging  that  the  laws  of 
trade  are  founded  upon  the  very  nature  of  things,  and,  if  some  men 
suffer  apparently  under  the  operation  of  these  laws,  the  evil  is  in- 
evitable, and  that  these  laws  cannot  be  altered  because  their  working 
may  not  be  equally  favourable  to  all;  if  some  be  less  happy,  others  will 
be  more;  if  some  are  starving  now,  others  will  have  plenty  elsewhere  or 


NOTES.  363 


hereafter,  and  thus  the  average  will  be  fair ;  if  many  die,  there  will 
be  more  for  those  who  remain ;  and  if  men  are  deprived  of  labour  iu 
one  department  of  industry,  they  can  turn  to  another  ,•  and  if  they  die 
in  the  transition,  it  is  because  they  were  not  needed.  So,  neither  is  the 
complaint  of  socialists  met  by  statesmen,  who  tell  them  their  demands 
cannot  possibly  be  conceded  without  the  greatest  injustice  to  vested 
interests,  without  disturbing  society  to  its  foundations,  without  such  a 
radical  change  of  political  institutions  as  would  wholly  change  the 
existing  order  of  things,  and  thus  revolutionize  our  present  social 
system;  to  the  ruin  of  those  who  now  hold  wealth  and  power,  ad- 
vantages not  to  be  surrendered  without  a  struggle.  No  such  re- 
sponses as  these  can  allay  the  excitement  or  stem  the  progress  of  social- 
ism, the  very  object  of  which  is  to  remove  the  barriers  to  progress,  to 
open  the  career  of  industry  to  poverty-stricken  multitudes,  who  now, 
when  they  labour  at  all,  labour  for  the  advantage  of  others  more 
than  for  their  own;  who  insist  upon  the  solution  of  the  problem, 
— "What  will  best  promote  the  interests  of  the  whole  number  of  any 
community  ? 

Although  we  totally  dissent  from  the  plans  of  reforming  political 
institutions  which  the  socialists  have  proposed,  we  cheerfully  concede 
their  having  rendered  a  great  service  to  social  science  by  demonstrat- 
ing the  justice  and  necessity  of  reform.  Their  strong  sympathy  for 
human  suflFering  throws  an  interest  over  many  of  their  writings,  very 
much  in  contrast  with  much  of  the  theology,  political  economy,  and 
politics  of  the  present  day.  It  would  be  a  useful  task  to  glance  over 
pages  thus  in  contrast,  and  entertain  our  readers  with  socialists  plead- 
ing the  cause  of  humanity,  and  Christians  taking  the  part  of  wealth 
and  power.  If  much  cause  of  humiliation  should  be  found  in  this 
comparison,  it  would  not  be  the  only  lesson  of  that  kind  which  might 
be  administered  to  those  who  profess  to  be  the  followers  of  Him  who, 
when  he  took  upon  himself  the  form  of  humanity,  became  also  its 
champion  and  friend. 

Whatever  may  be  said  or  thought  by  those  who  regard  socialism  as 
synonymous  with  infidelity,  it  is  very  certain  that  many  of  them  are 
not  only  Christians,  but  derive  their  strongest  assurances  of  the  tiual 
success  of  their  reforms  from  the  universal  prevalence  of  Christianity. 
It  will  be  new  to  many,  that  one  of  the  most  noted  of  the  socialists, 
the  author  of  Icaria,  and  the  leader  of  the  French  colony  now  settled 
at  Nauvoo,  M.  Cabet,  is  the  writer  of  a  work  with  the  title.  True 
Christianity  as  it  came  by  Jesus  Christ,  (Paris,  ISmo.,  635  pages,)  in 


364  NOTES. 


•wliieh  is  an  exjiosition  of  the  Christian  system  as  delivered  by  the 
Saviour  to  his  discijiles,  in  not  a  few  respects  superior  to  any  in  our 
Protestant  libraries.  He  sketches  the  Jewish  dispensation,  the  law, 
ritual  and  moral,  the  types,  the  prophecies,  the  promises  of  a  coming 
Saviour,  his  appearing  in  the  fulness  of  time,  and  his  divine  mission:  he 
receives  Him  as  a  Divinity,  as  the  Son  of  God  and  the  Saviour  of  sin- 
ners, as  having  given  a  new  commandment  and  introduced  a  new  dis- 
pensation, intended  to  open  up  the  way  of  life  for  lost  transgressors,  and 
wisely  designed  to  amend  their  condition  in  this  world.  But  the  distin- 
guishing excellence  of  this  work  is  the  exposition  it  gives  of  the  life, 
miracles,  and  teachings  of  Christ,  precisely  the  department  in  which 
Protestant  writers  come  short  of  what  is  due  to  their  great  Teacher, 
the  author  and  finisher  of  their  faith.  We  commend  this  volume, 
which  is  not  free  from  serious  defects,  to  those  whose  duty  it  is  to 
produce,  as  far  as  human  ability  will  permit,  something  worthy  of  the 
subject.  Let  us  have  an  exposition  of  Christianity  as  it  came  from 
the  lips  of  its  Author,  a  full  development  of  his  doctrines  and  precepts, 
as  the  best  and  only  appropriate  introduction  to  the  expositions  and 
teachings  of  the  apostles. 


NOTES.  365 


LATER  INDICATIONS  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Whilst  the  preceding  pages  were  going  to  the  press,  we  have 
gathered  fresh  evidence  that  the  subject  of  human  well-being  is  re- 
ceiving in  Great  Britain  increasing  attention.  Not  all  the  interests 
of  rank  or  wealth,  nor  the  influence  of  the  church,  nor  the  prejudices 
of  education,  nor  the  immovableness  of  conservatism,  have  sufficed  to 
keep  down  the  topic.  Socialism  can  no  longer  be  kept  out  of  sight, 
and  the  subjects  it  involves  can  no  longer  be  overlooked.  That  is  the 
real  triumph  of  socialism — it  has  raised  the  questions  and  forced  on 
the  discussion.  The  French  mind  has  been  fully  employed  upon  all 
aspects  of  social  science ;  in  Great  Britain  they  are  preparing  to  fol- 
low. They  begin  to  admit  the  subject  may  be  openly  treated,  and 
that  there  may  be  something  for  consideration.  We  have  referred  to 
some  of  the  pioneers  in  this  path  of  thought.  We  now  notice  some 
of  later  date. 

AYe  find  an  article  in  No.  22  of  the  North  British  Review, 
for  August,  1849,  devoted  to  the  subject  of  German  and  French 
socialism,  which  displays  some  knowledge  of  the  various  writers  in- 
cluded in  the  survey.  The  writer  treats  them  with  unsparing,  and,  for 
the  most  part,  just  criticism :  he  perceives  their  weak  points,  their 
mutual  variance,  and  the  absurdity  of  their  conclusions ;  but  never  once 
touches  the  question  which  such  an  examination  should  have  pre- 
sented to  the  mind  of  a  thinking  man.  Another  article  in  the  same 
Review,  No.  30,  for  August,  1851,  enters  so  far  into  the  subject  as 
to  concede  there  may  be  room  for  discussion, — there  may  be  a  neces- 
sity of  examining  theories  of  human  welfare, — there  may  be  a  social 
science.  Speaking  of  Newman's  (Political  Economj')  depreciating 
socialism,  the  writer  remarks  : — 

"Among  the  many  merits  of  Mr.  Newman's  volume,  we  cannot  rank,  how- 
ever, his  unexcepting  depreciation  of  the  political  force  of  the  socialist  move- 
ment. No  movement  occupying  so  large  a  space  in  history  could  possibly  be  so 
devoid  of  positive  worth  of  any  kind  as  he  represents  socialism  to  be.  In 
this  respect,  Mr.  Mill,  who  anticipates  much  from  socialism,  seems  to  entertain 
the  more  just  and  philosophic  view." 

But  the  writer  is  far  too  deeply  steeped  in  political  economy,  and 
too  deeply  convinced  of  the  perfection  of  British  institutions  as  they 

31* 


366  NOTES. 


are,  to  be  able  to  conceive  the  importance  or  breadth  of  the  subject 
which  lay  before  him.  His  glimpse  of  the  truth,  however,  obliges 
him  to  say — 

"  Followed  out  to  tho  utmost,  indeed,  the  spirit  of  political  economy  leads  to 
the  fatal  conclusion — that  the  conduct  of  the  social  life  should  be  left  entirely 
to  the  spontaneous  operation  of  those  laws  which  have  the  seat  of  action  in 
the  minds  of  individuals,  without  any  attempt  on  the  part  of  society,  as  such, 
to  exert  a  controlling  influence ;  in  other  words,  without  allowing  to  the  state, 
or  institutions  for  general  government,  any  higher  function  than  that  of  pro- 
tecting individual  freedom.  And  it  is  in  this  respect  that  political  economy 
has  called  forth  the  antagonistic  doctrine  of  socialism.  Tiewed  historically, 
socialism  has  certainly  some  of  the  marks  of  a  genuine  step  in  the  progressive 
development  of  the  human  mind." "  The  influence  of  socialism,  how- 
ever, on  social  science,  properly  so  called,  has  consisted  less  in  the  addition  of 
positive  doctrines  of  any  substantial  value,  than  in  the  general  impulse  it  has 
given  to  social  speculation.  As  opposed  to  political  economy,  its  effect  has  been 
to  vindicate  the  right  of  other  laws  than  those  concerned  in  the  acquisition  of 
wealth  to  a  recognition  in  the  social  constitution ;  and  also,  to  reassert,  in  a 
new  and  higher  form,  the  necessity  of  general  government — that  is,  the  scien- 
tific superiority  of  the  will  of  society  as  such,  to  that  of  all  its  members  indi- 
vidually."* 

This  is  a  large  concession  from  that  quarter,  and  a,  long  step  in  ad- 
vance of  the  article  on  socialism,  in  the  number  for  August,  1849. 
It  is  far  from  explicit,  but  it  clearly  reveals  the  transition  state  into 
which  the  writer  has  passed.  He  begins  to  perceive  that  there  was 
something  in  socialism  which  he  did  not  see,  and  that  there  may  pos- 
sibly be  some  deficiencies  in  political  economy  which  he  did  not  con- 
ceive. He  had  not  yet  perceived  that  political  economy,  strictly 
so  called,  is  as  much  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity  as  it  is  an- 
tagonistic to  socialism ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  there  is  far  more  in 
common  between  socialism  and  Christianity,  than  there  is  between 
the  latter  and  political  economy.  We  make  only  one  more  remark, — 
that  this  Review,  being  the  organ  of  one  of  the  most  orthodox  and 
enlightened  of  the  Protestant  sects,  it  is  hopeful  to  find  its  door  open- 
ing for  the  discussion  of  social  science  on  its  merits,  and  that  the 
interests  of  humanity  may  yet  find  a  place  in  Scotch  theology. 

The  Edinhurgh  Review  has  long  been  known  for  its  strict  devotion 
to  political  economy.  This  might  be  exemplified  in  a  way  very  little 
to  its  credit  as  the  friend  of  humanity.     But  the  light  which  has  burst 

*  North  British  Review,  No.  30,  August,  ISf)!.     Article  1. 


NOTES.  367 


into  the  Protestantism  of  the  North  British,  has  reached,  also,  the  in- 
terior of  the  Edinburgh.  In  the  first  article  of  the  number  for 
January,  1851,  wo  find  the  following : — 

"  It  does  seem  as  if  the  time  were  come  for  genius  to  find  a  new  field  for  its 
development  and  display ;  and  there  are  many  hopeful  indications  that  the 
same  glorious  faculty  which  has  reaped  harvests  of  enduring  laurels  in  most 
other  departments,  is  about  to  take  up  the  case  of  man  himself.  The  time  is 
come  for  the  leading  spirits  to  devote  themselves,  heart  and  soul,  to  the  solution 
of  those  perilous  enigmas  of  life  which  have  so  long  formed  our  perplexity  and 
our  despair,  and  to  the  cure  of  those  social  anomalies  which  darken  the  fair 
face  of  the  modern  world,  and  make  us  feel,  sadly  and  humbly,  how  imperfect 
and  partial  is  the  civilization  we  exult  in.  It  cannot  be  that  the  same  intellect 
which  has  wrung  from  nature  her  most  hidden  secrets,  which  has  tri- 
umphed over  the  most  gigantic  material  obstructions, should  not, 

when  fairly  applied  to  social  and  administrative  science,  be  competent  to  rec- 
tify our  errors  and  to  smooth  our  path ;  unless,  indeed,  society  take  refuge  in 
the  dreary  creed,  which  never  shall  be  ours,  that  the  problem  before  us  is  in- 
soluble, and  the  wretchedness  around  us  inherent  and  incurable." 

These  are  words  of  grand  promise  from  a  periodical  so  conservative 
and  influential  as  the  Edinburgh  Review.  Clearly,  the  question  of 
human  well-being  is  becoming  an  open  one  in  Great  Britain :  it  has 
forced  itself  upon  the  attention  of  the  enlightened,  in  such  manner 
that  neither  shutting  eyes  nor  stopping  ears  has  sufficed  to  keep  it 
away ;  neither  ridicule,  nor  scorn,  nor  denunciation  has  been  able  to 
repress  its  swelling  vigour.  The  subject  must  be  considered  fairly, 
openly,  thoroughly  :  if  met  candidly  and  earnestly,  by  men  in  power 
and  men  of  wealth,  it  will  involve  no  revolution,  but  a  more  faithful 
performance  of  Christian  duties. 

In  1850,  appeared  The  Metliod  of  the  Divine  Government,  Ph/sical 
and  3[oral,  by  Rev.  James  McCosn,  a  Scottish  divine,  a  large  and 
elaborate  work,  the  merits  of  which  were  at  once  admitted,  and  placed 
the  author  in  a  high  rank  as  a  profound  thinker  and  able  writer.  Ho 
could  not,  however,  traverse  the  whole  field  of  the  providence  of  God, 
as  had  been  the  habit  of  the  theologians  aforetime,  without  touching, 
in  several  points,  the  growing  topic  of  human  welfare : 

■  "  Ever  since  the  days  of  Adam  Smith,  we  have  been  seeking  to  promote  a 
great  abstraction,  which  we  call  national  wealth;  and  in  looking  to  it,  we  for- 
get that  to  which  it  should  be  a  mere  stepping-stone— national  happiness  and 
national  virtue.    A  traveller  is  filled  with  admiration  of  our  large  factories,"  &c. 

"But  has  he  entered  the  houses  in  which  the  workmen  live?— has  he 

sitten  at  their  boards  and  viewed  their  domestic  arrangements  ?— has  he  inquired 


368  NOTES. 


into  the  character  of  woman,  as  affected  hy  the  state  of  society,  or  her  work, 
which  takes  her  from  her  family,  or  renders  her  unfit  for  the  management  of 
it  ? — has  he  inquired  into  the  training  of  the  rising  generation  ? — has  he  visited 
those  humble  and  humbling  abodes,  to  which  the  poor  and  outcast  are  driven 
by  crime  or  misfortune  ? — has  he  visited  those  crowded  lanes  of  our  cities, 
whose  physical  is  not  so  polluted  as  their  moral  atmosphere,  but  in  which  the 
heart — larger  than  even  the  imagination— of  Dr.  Chalmers  used  to  feel  a  livelier 
interest  than  in  the  gorgeous  scenes  of  nature  he  so  much  admired  ?  If  he  has 
done  this,  he  will  be  ready  to  doubt  whether  any  country,  in  any  age,  has  pro- 
duced a  more  demoralized  or  debauched  population  than  the  masses  to  be  found 
in  our  large  cities,  (and  not  a  few  of  our  agricultural  labourers  are  no  better,) 
possessing,  as  they  do,  little  of  civilization  but  its  vices,  and  the  knowledge 
and  wealth  of  the  classes  above  them  producing  in  them  only  discontent  and 
jealousy."— Pages  263, 264,  Am.  Ed. 

"  It  does  look  as  if  our  earth  were  waiting  for  something  greater  or  better  than 
has  ever  yet  been  realized."  ....  "  Does  it  not  appear  as  if  these  great  and 
beauteous  works  of  God  were  preserved  for  a  grander  purpose  than  they  have 
ever  yet  served  ? — that  this  air  is  yet  to  be  breathed  by,  and  the  light  of  these 
heavenly  bodies  to  shine  upon,  beings  as  pure  as  themselves  are?" 

"  How  universal,  too,  the  restlessness,  how  deep  the  groanings  and  travail- 
ings  of  the  human  race !  This  world  is  not  now  and  never  has  been  what  its  in- 
habitants wish  it  to  be.  Hence  the  constant  endeavours  to  improve  it.  "Whether 
taken  individually  or  collectively,  human  kind  do  not  feel  themselves  to  be  at 

ease." "What  never  ending  schemes  for  the  improvement  of  mankind, 

all  proceeding  on  the  principle  that  mankind  need  to  be  improved !" 

"Can  we  suppose  such  universal  desires  and  expectations  would  be  excited 
without  a  deep  reason?  Do  not  the  universality  and  the  fundamental  depth 
of  the  desires  seem  to  indicate  that  they  may  be  gratified  ?" 

"  Let  it  be  frankly  admitted  that  there  is  progress  in  the  world.  There  is 
progress  in  agriculture,  there  is  progress  in  all  the  arts  and  in  all  the  sciences." 

"But  is  there  to  be  a  physical  and  intellectual,  and  no  moral  progress? 

Is  the  less  to  advance  and  the  greater  to  remain  stationary  ?" "  Some  of 

these  considerations  may  be  regarded  as  brought  from  a  distance;  yet  by  their 
collection  and  clustering,  they  seem  to  us  to  form  a  pleasant  belt  of  light — a 
kind  of  milky  way,  hung  over  our  world,  in  this  its  dark  night,  to  give  light  to 
the  traveller  who  has  set  out  in  search  of  truth." — Pages  467-469, 

These  extracts  exhibit  either  the  efforts  of  a  deep  thinker  groping 
his  way  in  a  subject  with  which  he  was  not  yet  familiar,  or  of  one 
who,  understanding  the  subject,  was  feeling  the  pulse  of  his  readers, 
to  know  how  far  he  might  go  in  aspirations  for  human  progress.  In 
either  case,  the  inquiry  arises,  how  Christian  men,  believers  in  the 
Scriptures,  can  so  wholly  overlook  the  four  Gospels  as  not  to  perceive 
the  ample  light  they  shed  upon  these  dark  problems  and  deep  ima- 
ginings?   He  must  either  have  been  labouring  in  the  mists  of  theology. 


NOTES.  3G9 


or  liave  been  afraid  to  speak  out  his  sentiments  in  an  atmosphere  of 
theology.  Few  Scottish  divines  could  have  ventured  upon  the  career 
of  Dr.  Chalmers ;  and  even  with  his  courage,  few  could  venture  upon  a 
subject,  the  paths  of  which  were  so  hedged  in  by  the  prejudices  of 
education. 

Among  the  works  placed  in  our  bands  since  we  commenced  these 
notes,  is  The  Theory  of  Human  Progression  and  Natural  Probability 
of  a  Reign  of  Justice,  (8vo.,  London  and  Edinburgh,  1850,)  which  we 
regard  as  a  striking  evidence  of  the  advance  of  social  science  in  Great 
Britain. 

We  can  only  commend  it  to  the  reader's  notice,  as  a  volume 
of  more  than  ordinary  ability.  It  is  the  offspring  of  a  profound 
thinker,  but  of  one  who  has  not  sufficiently  explored  the  whole  ground 
of  social  science  to  be  an  equally  safe  guide  in  all  places.  His  chief 
position  is  that  hnowledge  is  reform — that  the  increase  of  knowledge 
must  be  the  basis  of  all  human  progression.  He  regards  Divine  re- 
velation as  an  indispensable  accompaniment  of  all  other  knowledge, 
which  must  ever  be  kept  within  Christian  limits  and  inspired  with 
Christian  aims.  The  author  does  not  believe  that  pauperism  comes 
from  God : 

"  It  is  man's  doing,  and  man's  doing  alone.  God  has  abundantly  supplied 
man  with  all  the  means  of  support;  and  where  he  cannot  find  support,  we  must 
not  look  to  the  arrangements  of  the  Almighty,  but  to  those  of  men,  and  to 
the  mode  in  which  they  have  portioned  out  the  earth.  To  charge  the  poverty 
of  man  on  God,  is  to  blaspheme  the  Creator,  instead  of  bowing  down  in  reve- 
rent thankfulness  for  the  profusion  of  his  goodness.  He  has  given  enough, 
abundance,  more  than  sufficient;  and  if  man  has  not  enough,  we  must  look  to 
the  mode  in  which  God's  gifts  have  been  distributed.  There  is  enough,  enough 
for  all,  abundantly  enough ;  and  all  that  is  requisite,  is  freedom  to  labour  on 
the  soil  and  extract  from  it  the  produce  that  God  intended  for  man's  support." 
"  If  we  find,  at  one  end  of  society,  a  few  thousand  individuals  with  enor- 
mous wealth,  for  which  they  work  not,  and  never  have  worked,  and  on  the 
other  end  of  society,  millions  born  on  the  same  soil,  with  barely  the  necessa- 
ries of  life,  and  too  often  in  abject  destitution,  there  is  no  other  possible  con- 
clusion than  that  this  poverty  arises  from  man's  arrangements." "If 

Englishmen  discover  that  pauperism  and  wretchedness  are  unnecessary ;  that 
the  Divine  Being  never  intended  such  things;  that  the  degradation  of  the 
labouring  population,  their  moral  degradation  consequent  on  poverty,  is  the 
curse  of  the  laws,  and  not  of  nature,  does  any  man  suppose  that  Englishmen 
would  not  be  justified  in  abolishing  such  laws,  or  that  they  will  not  abolish 
them?"— Page  313-315. 

This  writer  is  a  vehement  opponent  of  the  whole  theory  of  political 


370  NOTES. 


economy,  as  now  held  by  the  chiefs  of  that  school.  He  states  his 
objections  strongly,  and,  we  think,  convincingly.  They  are  so  well 
founded,  that  we  may  wonder  why  he  did  not  take  the  welfare  of  man, 
which  he  avers  to  be  the  true  object  of  political  economy,  as  the  subject 
of  his  volume.  It  would  have  formed  a  much  clearer  radiating  point 
for  his  inquiries  than  the  indefinite  term  knowledge.  He  thus  com- 
mits the  very  error,  and  indulges  in  the  very  same  kind  of  fallacy 
which  lead  astray  the  writers  of  political  economy  :  he  exalts  the 
means  above  the  end.  Knowledge  is  a  means  of  human  progression, 
an  indispensable  means ;  but  human  welfare  is  only  to  be  achieved  by 
a  variety  of  means — knowledge  among  the  rest.  So  industry,  wealth, 
and  commerce  are  means  of  human  welfare,  and  can  only  be  properly 
treated  in  that  aspect.  The  attempt  to  construct  a  science  out  of  the 
facts  of  industry,  wealth,  and  commerce,  without  any  regard  to  hu- 
man well-being,  or  to  any  moral  considerations,  is  as  baseless  as 
knowledge,  apart  from  men  to  know.  The  leading  imperfection  of  this 
very  creditable  performance  may  be  traced  to  this  erroneous  starting- 
point. 

A  work  which  attracts  much  attention,  appeared  a  few  months  since 
in  London,  with  the  title.  Social  Statics,  by  Herbert  Spencer.  It  is 
apparently  an  attempt  to  consecrate  some  of  the  more  refined  of  the 
Malthusian  doctrines,  by  placing  them  on  more  specious  grounds,  and 
assuming  new  data  and  a  more  popular  line  of  argument :  it  comes  to 
the  aid  of  the  political  economists,  by  offering  them  a  basis  for  their 
whole  fabric  difi"erent  from  that  which  they  ever  claimed.  It  comes 
to  the  aid  of  the  English  institutions,  not  only  by  assuming  a  theory 
of  society  which  adopts  the  views  of  the  few  who  hold  the  power  and 
the  wealth  of  the  country,  but  by  starting  from  the  present  distribu- 
tion of  power,  rank  and  wealth,  with  the  position  that  the  perfection 
of  society  consists  in  the  perfect  liberty  of  every  individual  to  do 
what  he  pleases,  provided  he  infringes  not  the  liberty  or  rights  of 
others.  That  is,  the  present  distribution  of  the  good  things  of  this 
world  must  not  be  changed  in  the  United  Kingdom;  but  that  being 
conceded,  the  man  of  power  and  the  man  without,  the  man  of  wealth 
and  the  pauper,  should  each  have  the  largest  and  most  perfect  liberty 
consistent  with  their  not  touching  each  other.  This  is  the  highest  and 
most  ingenious  sublimation  of  English  political  philosophy  which  has 
yet  been  given  to  the  world ;  and  it  is  given  forth  under  the  plausible 
colours  of  the  largest  liberty.  It  forbids  the  thought  of  charity  or 
brotherhood  or  sacrifice;    it  consecrates  selfishness  and  individual- 


NOTES.  371 


ism  as  the  prime  feature  of  society.  It  forbids  all  deliberation  for  the 
common  good — all  legislation  for  the  present  good  of  the  greatest 
number.  Its  principle  is,  the  least  possible  restriction,  the  fewest 
possible  enactments — the  weak  must  be  left  to  their  weakness,  the 
strong  must  be  trusted  with  their  strength,  the  unprotected  must  not 
look  for  favour,  and  government  must  resolve  itself  into  the  lowest 
possible  agent  of  non-intervention. 

It  may  be  hoped  this  is  the  last  specimen  we  shall  see  of  that  philo- 
sophy which  aims  to  exalt  the  present  institutions  of  society  into  the 
first  principles  of  social  science.  This  volume  of  Mr.  Spencer  is 
characterized  by  clearness  and  severe  logic,  and  the  ability  of  the 
writer  increases  the  regret  that  it  is  not  employed  in  the  service  of 
humanity.  When  a  logical  mind  like  his  shall,  in  a  survey  of  social 
statics,  set  his  compass  from  the  point  of  human  welfare,  we  shall  see 
him  developing  a  very  different  system  from  that  which  we  have 
noticed.  It  will  be  a  system  in  which  public  good  will  be  pursued 
with  a  view  to  individual  welfare  ,•  in  which  politics,  political  economy, 
and  Christianity  will  be  found  blending  their  efforts  and  interests  in 
the  sole  consideration  of  social  haj^piness ;  in  which  selfishness  will 
not  be  consecrated,  under  the  name  of  the  largest  individual  liberty, 
as  a  fundamental  principle  of  society,  but  self-denial  and  mutual 
kindness  taken  as  the  basis  of  human  society. 

The  following  works,  omitted  in  the  catalogue  at  page  294,  are 
worthy  of  being  consulted  : — 

Essays  on  the  Principles  of  Charitable  Institutions,  8vo.,  London, 1836 

The  WroDgs  of  Man,  by  Wm.  Manning,  8vo.,  London, 1838 

The  Claims   of  Labour — Duties  of  Employers  and  Employed,  12mo., 

London, 1845 

The  Elevation  of  the  People,  Moral,  Instructional,  and  Social,  by  Rev. 

Th.  Milnor,  8vo.,  London, 1846 

Orer-population  and  its  Remedy,  by  Wm.  Thomas  Thornton,  8to.,  London,  1840 
An  Analysis  of  the  Occupations  of  the  People  of  Great  Britain,  Wm.  F. 

Spackman,  8 vo.  London, 1847 

The  Organization  of  Industry,  by  T.  C.  Banfield,  8vo.,  London. 1848 


372  NOTES. 


PROTESTANTISM. 

Whatever  advantages  many  sects  may  enjoy  in  point  of  orthodoxy, 
purity  of  doctrine,  and  knowledge  of  revelation,  the  mass  of  Protest- 
ants have  no  special  grounds  of  complacency.  In  proportion  to  their 
light,  their  privileges,  and  their  mental  freedom,  their  advances  in  pure 
Christianity  arc  by  no  means  so  creditable  as  generally  assumed. 
There  is  more  ground  for  recent  assertions  of  Catholic  authorities, 
that  Protestantism  is  declining,  than  is  admitted.  The  Catholics 
did  not  perceive  that  true  religion  was  gaining  even  where  Protest- 
antism was  crumbling,  nor  did  they  perceive,  when  they  made  this 
boast,  that  Christianity  would  become  for  them  a  far  more  formidable 
adversary  than  Protestantism.  "When  Christianity  has  made  aU  the 
conquests  which  belong  to  its  career,  the  Christian  will  look  back  upon 
Protestant  history  with  grief  and  mortification,  that  so  much  light 
and  so  many  privileges  were  so  long  abused  under  cover  of  a  hard 
and  unprofitable  theology.  We  might  multiply  quotations  to  this 
efiect,  from  other  sources  than  Papal  writers,  but  restrict  ourselves  to 
a  very  few.  We  have  already  referred  to  (ante  347)  Conferences  iqyon 
Christianity  in  its  Application  to  Social  Questions,  by  the  Rev.  Ed. 
De  Pkessexse,  a  Pro?esfan(  and  evangelical  pastor  in  Paris.  From 
this  volume,  which  deserves  the  profound  study  of  Protestants  in  other 
quarters  of  Christendom,  we  offer  another  passage : — 

"  But  the  social  question  is  nothing  else  at  this  day  than  the  degree  of  pre- 
dominance to  be  allowed  to  charity  in  our  institutions.  It  was  this  principle 
of  charity  which  should  have  been  graven  upon  men's  consciences,  and  we 
now  know  why  the  Protestant  dogma  could  not  do  it."' 

"  If  we  are  willing  to  be  convinced  of  the  insufficiency  of  Protestantism  to 
direct  society  in  the  transformations  it  is  now  undergoing,  we  have  only  to 
look  at  the  attitude  it  assumes  in  regard  to  the  social  questions  of  the  day.  It 
has  shown  itself  indifferent  or  hostile  to  this  movement:  in  Germany,  France, 
England,  and  Switzerland,  the  real  Protestants  have  refused  to  entertain  this 
question ;  and  in  their  just  opposition  to  socialism,  they  have  smothered  the 
very  legitimate  question  of  which  socialism  has  usurped  the  place.  This  is 
specially  to  be  remarked  in  England ;  for,  if  there  is  one  country  more  than 
another  where  a  question  touching  the  interests  of  humanity  should  have 
been  favourably  regarded,  that  was  England.  Close  to  the  magnificent  resi- 
dences of  the  aristocracy,  the  manufacturing  towns  conceal  more  miseries  than 
we  can  conceive ;  and  Ireland,  suffering   the  tortures  of  famishing  poverty, 

continually  stares  her  in  the  face." '"If  England,  then,  displays  such  a 

hideous  exhibition  of  poverty,  we  must  infer  that  there  is  not  in  the  religious 


NOTES.  373 


spirit  which  rules  there,  an  inspiration  strong  enough  to  lift  the  public  mind 
into  the  career  of  wise  social  reform." 

"  We  have  very  strong  proof  that  the  weakness  of  Protestantism  cannot  be 
attributed  to  second  causes,  but  must  be  laid  at  its  own  door— it  is  everywhere 
crumbling."* 

"  In  England  it  seems  to  preserve  intact  its  ancient  form,  because  the  revo- 
lutions which  have  shaken  the  continent  have  not  penetrated  there ;  but  from 
the  day  it  shall  penetrate,  wherever  the  heated  wave  strikes,  that  ancient  form 

must  yield." "In  Germany,  where  social  and  political  questions  have 

long  been  largely  discussed,  Protestantism  is  routed." 

"In  France,  Protestantism  wields  so  little  power,  that  many  are  disposed  to 
inquire  where  it  is  concealed;  and  it  does  well  to  hide  its  miserably  degraded 
condition.  It  cannot  assume  here  the  name  of  a  church.  Weak  and  small, 
yet  so  divided  that  we  cannot  return  a  united  response  to  any  question.  Sad 
state !  proving  that  Protestantism  in  France,  as  elsewhere,  has  had  its  day."— 
Page  214. 

M.  Pressense  insists  that  the  Catholics  annihilate  the  principle  of 
charity  by  their  system,  which  exhibits  God  as  only  granting  his  par- 
don to  our  good  works  ;  that  is,  paying  us  the  wages  of  our  labour. 
It  implies  no  love,  no  compassion  in  the  Deity. 

The  Protestant  system  is,  he  alleges,  scarcely  less  erroneous.  It 
exhibits  the  sovereignty  of  God  so  nakedly  and  so  constantly  in  its 
teachings,  that  those  revelations  of  his  word  showing  him  to  be  a  God 
of  Love,  as  well  as  of  Infinite  Power  and  Justice,  blending  his  attri- 
butes into  that  perfection  of  Judgment  and  Mercy  which  we  adore,  are 
lost  from  sight.     Charity  expires  under  a  theology  so  ungenial  to  its 

nature.     (Pago  202.) 

In  reference  to  Protestant  theology,  we  are  reminded  that  it  is  im- 
portant not  only  to  hold  to  right  doctrines,  but  to  keep  them  in  the 
right  place,  assigning  to  each  their  due  prominence.  We  must  wear 
our  garments  in  their  proper  order,  if  we  would  be  perfectly  clothed. 
The  Christian  who  dwells  only  upon  God's  sovereignty,  and  speaks 
only  of  God's  immutable  decrees,  cannot  but  lose  the  harmony  which 
should  reign  in  Christian  life  and  demeanour. 

For  an  article  containing  some  wholesome  truths  for  Protestants,  we 
commend  to  the  reader  the  Battle  of  the  Churches,  in  the  Westminster 
Review,  No.  108,  for  January,  1851.    It  is  well  at  times  to  be  taught  by 


*  Since  1 849,  the  date  of  M.  Pressense's  publication,  English  Protestantism 
has  been  shaken  to  its  basis,  and  is  certainly  in  danger,  if  not  already 
crumbling. 

32 


374  NOTES. 


our  enemies,  and  the  extract  in  that  article,  from  Mr.  Newman,  who 
writes  under  all  the  rancour  of  a  fresh  family  quarrel,  giving  unmis- 
takeable  evidence  of  his  willingness  to  point  out  Protestant  failings 
without  mercy  and  without  compunction,  may  furnish  food  for  thought 
and  motives  for  self-examination,  if  not  grounds  for  profound  humilia- 
tion. 

We  know  there  is  a  vast  deal  of  complacency  and  pride  among  us 
Protestants,  and  if  any  thing  can  justify  such  a  feeling,  there  may  be 
many  grounds  for  this  self-satisfaction.  Our  minds  are  free  from  the 
bondage  of  Romanism,  we  perceive  clearly  the  iniquities  of  priestcraft, 
we  have  the  Scriptures,  read  them  freely,  and  exalt  them  to  the  skies 
as  divine  in  their  origin  and  teachings,  we  build  imposing  and  costly 
temples  for  the  worship  of  God,  we  punctually  attend  upon  that 
worship  at  the  summons  of  the  church-going  bell,  long  lines  of  well- 
clad,  decently  behaved,  genteel  people  crowd  the  walks  and  roads 
which  lead  to  the  house  of  God;  luxurious  seats  are  weekly  filled  with 
these  order-loving  people,  attending  upon  the  regular  preaching  of  the 
word,  and  giving  ear  to  the  sti'ains  of  the  organ  or  the  efforts  of  the 
choir  ,•  the  weekly  meeting  for  prayer  sends  up  its  stated  supplications, 
the  Sunday-school  gathers  in  multitudes  of  children,  the  regular  agents 
of  the  church  and  its  religious  and  benevolent  institutions  are  yearly 
enriched  with  large  contributions.  But  in  all  this,  however  much 
there  is  to  admire  and  love,  there  may  be  none,  and  very  often  is  very 
little  true  Christianity.  Many  true  Christians  mingle  in  this  external 
pageant  of  religion,  as  doubtless  do  many  in  the  Papal  churches,  but  in 
neither  case  is  the  external  exhibition  any  essential  part  of  religion. 
It  may  not  be  all  wrong — it  may  be  all  right — it  may  be  a  means  of 
grace,  but  it  should  never  be  mistaken,  as  it  is  extensively,  for  Chris- 
tianity. It  is  the  foreground  of  a  picture,  in  which  there  is  much  to 
delight  the  eye  and  gratify  the  taste,  a  beautiful  blending  of  colours 
and  fine  outlines :  but  there  is  a  dark,  unregarded  background  in  the 
depths  of  the  picture.  When  an  individual  of  one  of  the  forsaken 
classes  in  London  was  asked  what  his  class  thought  of  religion,  the 
reply  showed  he  had  seen  the  picture  : — "Religion  is  not  for  the  likes 
of  us ;  it's  for  the  great  and  rich  people."  In  this  deep,  deep  back- 
ground are  the  masses  of  humanity,  far  outnumbering  those  in  the 
front :  there  is  poverty,  pauperism,  misery ;  there  is  ignorance,  envy, 
hatred,  and  crime ;  there  are  willing  hands  and  nothing  for  them  to  do; 
there  is  unrequited  labour;  there  is  famine,  disease,  and  premature 
death. 


NOTES.  375 


Protestants  have  not  invited  this  neglected  multitude  to  the  enter- 
tainment of  Christianity ;  it  has  not  gone  into  the  streets  and  high- 
ways to  bring  in  the  poor  to  the  house  of  feasting;  the  courts  and 
lanes  and  alleys  have  not  been  visited,  to  constrain  the  wretched 
to  com^  in  and  fill  up  the  vacant  seats  in  Protestant  churches.  How 
differently  would  the  picture  strike  the  beholder  if  suddenly  trans- 
formed in  a  perfect  representation  of  Christianity  !  The  stately  temples 
would  fade  away,  and  whole  masses  of  suffering  humanity  would  rise 
to  view :  instead  of  the  long  lines  of  orderly  people  in  the  path  to 
church,  we  should  see  hosts  of  good  Samaritans  hurrying  through 
crowds  of  the  poor,  pouring  in  oil  and  wine,  and  speaking  everywhere 
words  of  life  and  comfort,  in  the  name  of  Christ ;  and  while  myriads 
of  hands  were  eagerly  thrust  out  for  the  cup  of  cold  water,  as  many 
would  eagerly  extend  it  to  parched  lips.  Praise  would  no  longer  go 
up  merely  from  this  mountain  or  that,  but  from  every  heart,  in  every 
place.  The  gospel  would  be  preached  to  the  poor,  and  the  disciples 
would  be  as  well  known  by  their  loving  one  another,  as  they  are  now 
distinguished  by  strife,  bigotry,  and  estrangement. 

Protestantism  has  a  fearful  account  to  render  for  abused  privileges 
and  wilful  blindness,  for  exalting  theology  above  charity,  for  lead- 
ing children  to  theology  instead  of  to  Christ,  and  thus  giving  them 
a  stone  in  place  of  bread,  for  discarding  humanity,  for  abjuring  the 
brotherhood  of  man  and  substituting  sectarian  exclusiveness  and  bit- 
terness. It  would  be  easy  to  prolong  this  accusation — but  it  is  enough 
to  excite  reflection.  Let  it  not  be  thought  that  these  charges  bear 
with  as  much  force  against  individual  Christians  as  against  Protestant- 
ism and  its  sects.  A  crime  of  society  is  often  the  accumulation  of 
centuries.  Such  evils  are  felt  by  many  who  are  powerless  to  remedy 
them.  How  many  lament  the  effects  on  their  minds  of  a  religious 
education  encumbered  by  superstitions  or  fettered  by  a  useless 
theology !  They  find  themselves  cooped  up  in  the  frame-work  of  a 
system  they  can  neither  escape  nor  modify  nor  overthrow.  Christian 
men  are  not  acting  freely;  their  paths  of  active  duty  are  not  marked 
out  by  the  precepts  of  Christ,  but  according  to  the  arrangements  of 
man.  They  cannot  oppose  the  church  without  scandal :  they  cannot 
obey  Christ  without  being  eccentric.  Fetters  of  man's  invention  are 
now  restraining  the  movements  of  thousands  of  intelligent  Christians, 
who  long  for  the  liberty  of  the  gospel, — to  be  free  in  Christ. 
They  are  restrained  by  the  consideration  that  they  must  not  so  use 
their  liberty  as  to  offend  weak  brethren,  or  by  the  prejudices  of  their 


376  NOTES. 


own  education.  These  are  truly  orthodox,  evangelical  Christians, 
whose  great  desire  is  to  place  Christian  charity  at  the  head  of  Chris- 
tian graces,  where  it  belongs. 

There  are  multitudes,  on  the  other  hand,  whose  only  mode  of  show- 
ing their  zeal  for  religion  is  a  rigid  observance  of  the  established 
usages  of  their  church,  a  prompt  appeal  to  its  standards  in  cases  of 
doubt.  To  such  a  degree  of  assurance  does  this  narrowness  of  the  mind 
arrive,  that  men,  while  indulging  a  spirit  at  war  with  the  very  essence 
of  Christianity,  look  upon  many  around  them  with  the  condescension 
of  pity  or  the  unconcern  of  conscious  superiority.  Love  for  the  human 
family  is  a  sentiment  to  which  they  are  utter  strangers :  they  can  rise 
no  higher  in  their  efforts  for  it,  than  contributions  or  labours  to  bring 
converts  to  their  particular  denomination.  These  are  the  Pharisees  of 
modern  times.  Their  faults  are  the  result  of  their  education.  They 
are  men  who,  under  proper  training,  would  have  been  real  benefactors  of 
their  race;  but  their  theology,  which  is  perhaps  sound,  has  smothered 
the  heart,  instead  of  reforming  and  guiding  it,  and  has  absorbed  in- 
stead of  having  sanctified  their  affections. 

It  is  a  serious  mistake  to  claim  infallibility  for  Protestantism :  we 
take  the  Scriptures,  which  are  unerring,  for  our  guide,  but  our  fallibility 
is  displayed  at  every  step,  not  only  in  interpretation  of  what  is  doubt- 
ful, but  in  our  imperfect  compliance  with  what  is  perfectly  plain.  We 
must  not  forget  that  human  nature  is  as  prone  to  evil  among  us  as  among 
others;  and  that  the  e^temy  is  as  active  among  us  as  he  is  in  the 
Papal  camp.  We  must  not  be  surprised,  indeed,  if  his  greatest  feats 
of  cunning  and  power  are  directed  against  us.  It  was  indeed  a  mas- 
terly stroke  of  policy  to  win  a  signal  advantage,  in  the  very  hour 
of  his  overthrow  at  the  Reformation.  The  Reformers  were  bent  on 
extricating  the  truth  from  the  mass  of  papal  rubbish,  and  on  erecting 
a  structure  of  sound  theology :  they  were  resolved  upon  having  the 
Bible  in  their  own  hands,  to  decide  for  themselves.  Theological  con- 
troversies without  limit  furnished  them  full  em]Dloyment  for  their  time 
and  full  use  for  their  Bibles :  mounted  on  then*  own  hobby,  the  Re- 
formers rode  hard,  and  they  rode  far.  They  had  the  Scriptures,  but  the 
enemy  carefully  hid  from  their  sight,  in  the  excitement  of  conti'oversy, 
the  precepts,  the  parables,  the  sermons  of  Christ — these  were  of  no 
use  in  theological  polemics,  and  very  inopportune  in  a  period  when 
strife  raged  and  all  the  evil  passions  were  in  full  exercise.  The  Scrip- 
tures were  used  freely  and  constantly  in  this  warfare  upon  matters  of 
faith,  to  vindicate  the  truth;  but  they  were  little  heeded  in  their  in- 


NOTES.  on 


structions  as  to  conduct  and  conversation.     Spiritual  perception  was 
\nde  awake  in  matters  of  controversy,  but  asleep  in  those  of  charity. 
These  controversies  even  yet  continue,  and  theology  is  yet  enlarging 
its  boundaries.     The  Scriptures  for  three  centuries  have  been  chiefly 
thus  applied.     If  the  heat  of  the  contest  has  abated,  and  if  interest  in 
theology  has  diminished— if  the  cries  of  humanity  are  coming  up 
in  our  ears  from  all  Christendom,  and  we  are  compelled  to  search  the 
Scriptures  anew,  to  discover  whether  there  is  any  thing  there  appli- 
cable to  the  demands  of  poverty,  oppression,  and  misery— we  find  this 
long  forgotten  and  unused  life  of  Christ,  his  precepts,  sermons,  and 
parables,  whose  instructions  cover  the  whole  ground  and  meet  the 
whole  case.     But,  unfortunately,  our  standards,  creeds,  confessions  of 
faith,  catechisms,  and  manuals  of  devotion  were  drawn  up  by  men 
more  versed  in  polemics,  more  engaged  in  the  heat  of  religious  con- 
troversy, than  versed  in  the  principles  of  peace,  mercy,  kindness,  and 
charity ;  unfortunately  our  whole  Protestant  literature,  our  whole  reU- 
gious  education  has  all  come  from  the  same  mint.      The  life  and  pre- 
cepts of  Christ  are  not  incorporated  in  our  religious  ideas.    We  cannot, 
therefore,  instantly  apply  them.     We  require  time  to  cast  the  old  skin 
and  come  out  clothed  in  new  garments  of  love,  mercy,  and  peace. 
It  was,  indeed,  worthy  the  cunning  of  our  great  spiritual  enemy,  thus 
to  cheat  the  Reformation  of  half  its  truth  and  half  its  energy;  but  his 
skill  has  been  not  less  manifested  in  later  times,  by  giving  to  all  the 
sayings  and  doings  of  the  Reformers  the  sanction  of  age  and  the  bul- 
wark of  conservatism:  having  emasculated  Protestantism  at  its  birth, 
he  now  rallies  all  the  sober,  substantial,  conservative  clergy,  and  all 
the  rich,  substantial,  satisfied  laymen,  in  defence  of  the  noble  band  of 
Reformers  who  so  valiantly  fought  the  battles  of  the  Reformation. 
To  desert  them,  it  is  urged,  would  be  to  desert  Christianity.     It  is 
virtually  admitted   that   the    Scriptures   are  insufficient  without  the 
explanations  of  these  men  of  battle  and  storm;  and  that  our  theology, 
born  in  the  heat  of  religious  controversy,  is  our  only  safeguard,  even 
at  this  day.     The  Jews  fastened  their  traditions  upon  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Scriptures,  the  Papists  concealed  the  whole   Bible  in  the  ma- 
chinery of  their  church,  and  the  Protestants  cannot  escape  the  charge 
of  overlaying  the  Scriptures  with  a  mass  of  theology,  in  the  shape  of 
creeds,  articles,  catechisms,  standards,  platforms,  confessions  of  faith, 
and  manuals  of  devotion.     Let  these  formularies  be  examined  simply 
in  the  light  of  Christ's  teachings,   and  their  coldness,  dryness,  and 
inconsistency  with  the   true  spirit  of  Christianity  will  be  manifest. 


378  NOTES. 


They  breathe  none  of  the  spirit  of  kindness,  mercy,  and  charity  of 
Him  whose  ministry  was  among  the  poor,  and  whose  miraculous 
powers  were  chiefly  exerted  to  feed  the  hungry  and  heal  the  diseased. 
Christ's  life  and  teachings  were  not  deemed  available  in  the  contests 
of  the  Reformation,  and  were,  therefore,  not  incorporated  into  the 
systems  of  that  day.  And  now  they  are  to  be  deemed  inadmissible, 
because  they  come  too  late — the  divines  of  that  day  and  a  century  or 
so  later  having  settled  the  whole  frame-work  of  our  Protestant  reli- 
gion. Taking  as  a  sample  of  these  compends  of  theology,  one  of  the 
latest  and  most  admired  specimens,  one  that  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
faithfully  taught  and  the  most  highly  venerated  by  the  denominations 
who  receive  it  as  their  vade  mecum,  the  Shorter  Catechism  drawn  up 
by  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines,  we  ask  a  moment's  attention 
to  its  main  features.  This  catechism,  framed  with  singular  aptness, 
precision,  and  vigour  of  expression,  is  placed  by  several  large  denomi- 
nations of  Christians  in  the  hands  of  children  of  the  tenderest  years : 
it  is  pressed  upon  their  attention  and  memories  as  the  best  religious 
instruction  which  can  be  given  them,  as  the  very  marrow  and  essence 
of  Christianity.  It  teaches  the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  of  the  decrees 
of  God,  of  Providence,  of  original  sin,  or  the  fall  of  man  with  Adam ; 
the  covenant  of  woi-ks,  the  covenant  of  grace,  election,  eternal  Sonship, 
Christ  made  man,  the  offices  of  Christ  as  Prophet,  Priest,  and  King; 
his  humiliation,  exaltation,  and  death;  of  justification,  adoption,  sanc- 
tification ;  of  the  resurrection,  of  the  obligation  of  the  ten  command- 
ments, of  eternal  punishment,  of  faith  in  Christ,  of  repentance,  of  the 
sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper ;  concluding  with  a  few 
questions  on  the  Lord's  Prayer.  And  this  is  the  milk  with  which 
their  babes  are  fed — this  is  the  fountain  to  which  good  people  carry 
their  children.  Christ  said,  "  Suffer  little  children  to  come  unto  me ;" 
and,  although  these  people  have  Christ  in  the  Gospels,  his  very  words 
intelligible  to  children,  abounding  in  the  most  simple  and  touching 
lessons,  in  a  form  the  most  interesting  for  the  tender  mind  of  children, 
and  containing  injunctions  suited  to  every  age  and  every  walk  in  life, 
these  are  all  made  to  give  way  to  this  compend  of  mere  theology.* 
Is  this  bringing  children  to  Christ  ?     Is  this  honouring  his  instrue- 

*  We  have  just  noticed  a  work  on  charity,  by  the  great  Jonathan  Edwards, 
advertised  as  now  in  the  press.  It  is  rather  a  remarkable  fact,  and  somewhat 
indicative  of  the  Protestant  estimation  of  that  subject,  that  such  a  work  should 
have  been  permitted  to  sleep  a  century,  during  which  time  not  a  volume  on 
that  topic  was  extant  in  the  English  language. 


NOTES.  379 


tions  ?     But  how  does  it  look,  in  an  epitome  of  Christianity,  to  pass 
unnoticed  the  comprehensive  precepts  of  Christ,  reaching  so  deep  into 
the  heart  and  stretching  so  wide  into  human  obligations,  substituting 
the  decalogue   and   applying  all  possible  power  of  enlargement  to 
make  it  reach  the  ground  so  explicitly  covered  by  the  very  searching 
injunctions  of  Christ?    Let  any  unprejudiced  man  compare  this  en- 
largement with  the  special  sermons  of  Christ,  and  he  must  inquire, 
with  amazement,  what  could  have  been  the  motive  for  the  substitu- 
tion ?     The  words  of  Christ  extend  to  our  whole  outward  and  inward 
duty,  and  need  no  paraphrase.     They  should  be  impressed  upon  the 
minds  of  children  from  infancy  upwards.     They  constitute  a  practical 
guide  for  our  duty  to  God  and  to  man,  and  are,  therefore,  of  daily 
and  incessant  application.     They  refer  to  our  conduct,  and  direct  our 
Christian  life  and  conversation— therefore,  perhaps,  they  have  been 
left  out.     The  framers  were  far  more  concerned  about  faith  than 
works,  and  they  passed  over  aU  of  Christ  except  his  offices,  if  we  ex- 
cept the  Lord's  prayer,  which  is  specially  distinguished.     The  Reform- 
ers, and  the  successors  to  their  vocation  and  spirit,  always  inculcated 
prayer.  •  They  could  not  rise  to  the  conception  of  charity,  and  mercy, 
and  peace,  but  they  could  pray  devoutly,  and  loud,  and  long.     They 
were  willing  to  talk  with  God,  but  they  could  not  preach  the  gospel  to 
the  poor.     They  could  stand  up  and  make  long  prayers— they  could 
pray  in  secret,  and  with  earnestness,  but  the  kindness  of  brotherly 
love  was  almost  a  stranger  to  their  bosoms.     In  the  judgment  of 
charity,  there  have  been  hosts  of  such  men  who  were  true  Christians, 
not  according  to  the  measure  of  their  own  estimation,  but  according 
to  the  grace  of  Christ,  which  perceives  a  spark  of  faith  far  less  than  a 
"grain  of  mustard-seed." 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  number  and  value  of  the  children  of 
the  Reformation,  Charity  is  yet  to  be  born.  We  may  rejoice  that 
Christendom  is  now  in  labour.  If  Christians  can  now  be  brought  to 
know  and  do  what  is  right,  charity  will  be  the  fruit  of  these  thrcTes, 
and  the  world  will  be  gladdened  to  see  the  brightest  and  loveliest 
offspring  of  Christianity. 


380  NOTES. 


A  CASE  SUPPOSED  UPON  THE  SUBJECT  OF  VAKIOUS 
INTERPRETATIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

Let  us  suppose  that  an  ardent  friend  of  the  truth  has  found  in  his 
missionary  tours  a  large  number  of  people  who  are  strangers  to  the 
Bible  and  its  contents.  The  good  messenger  of  the  gospel  hastens  to 
place  in  their  hands  the  holy  volume  which  points  out  the  way  of 
eternal  blessedness,  and  by  his  earnest  exhortation  and  amiable  de- 
portment obtains  assurance  that  the  good  book  shall  be  carefully  read. 
In  due  time  the  missionary  invites  his  beneficiaries  of  the  Bible  to 
communicate  their  impressions.  He  finds  their  views  difi"ering  with 
every  different  mind,  from  the  closest  adherence  to  the  letter  to  the 
widest  limit  of  liberal  construction — he  finds  opinions  corresponding, 
in  greater  or  less  degree,  to  all  the  sects  of  Christendom.  Some  pro- 
fess their  confidence  and  full  faith  in  the  whole  volume,  some  in  por- 
tions ;  some  cling  to  the  letter,  others  to  the  spirit ;  some  announce  it 
as  a  spirit  of  eternal  life,  but  clothed  in  earthly  habiliments ;  some  re- 
ceive it  as  a  veritable  and  entire  revelation  from  heaven ;  others  as 
only  containing  heavenly  truths  mingled  with  human  statements — as 
containing  a  mass  from  which  we  may  select  the  important  declara- 
"tions  which  convey  the  message  of  eternal  life;  some  admire  the 
history  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  morals  of  the  New ;  some,  the 
poetic  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  benign  precepts  of  the 
New ;  some  find  the  Trinity  clearly  taught ;  others,  while  they  receive 
the  Bible  as  the  word  of  God,  Christ  as  their  Saviour,  and  the  Holy 
Spirit  as  their  Sanctifier,  cannot  receive  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity ; 
some  find  warrant  for  believing  in  a  great  mysterious  mystical  body, 
called  the  church,  while  others  believe  that  Christ  enjoins  no  form 
of -organization  upon  his  followers,  leaving  them  to  adopt  such,  in  all 
circumstances,  as  they  may  deem  most  efi"ective,  most  suited  to  pecu- 
liar cases — that  the  organization  and  the  form  of  the  ministry  may  be 
unfolded  and  gradually  shaped  by  the  piety  of  the  people,  and  not 
that  this  piety  can  be  dependent  upon  any  form  of  church  government 
or  ecclesiastical  arrangement — that  no  other  creed  or  confession  or 
manual  of  piety  is  required  than  the  New  Testament  itself. 

A  much  greater  variety  of  opinion  was  manifested  by  these  stu- 
dents of  the  Bible,  among  which  were  many  who  could  perceive  no 


NOTES.  381 


beauty  nor  truth  in  its  pages,  and  some  who  were  disposed  to  regard 
the  whole  as  an  invention  of  impostors. 

Our  missionary  replied  to  this  candid  expression  of  the  views  of  his 
Bible  readers,  that  he  had  much  reason  to  be  gratified  by  the  evident 
attention  which  had  been  given  to  the  holy  book  he  had  placed  in  their 
hands,  and  thus  continued : — "  I  am  not  surprised  to  find  a  wide  di- 
versity of  opinion  among  you.  It  could  not  be  otherwise,  as  God  has 
constituted  the  human  mind  :  if  we  judge  for  ourselves,  our  judgments 
must  be  different,  for  our  minds  are  no  more  cast  in  the  same  mould 
than  our  faces.  Diversity  is  a  characteristic  of  the  world  and  its 
creatures.  There  is  even  much  diversity  in  each  one  of  us  at  diflferent 
times.  God  could  easily  have  given  us  his  word  in  such  a  form  that 
no  shadow  of  doubt  could  have  rested  upon  any  passage,  and  no  room 
have  been  left  for  inquiry,  or  thought,  or  weighing  of  conclusions. 
He  has  not  done  so.  The  course  of  His  providence,  as  well  as  the 
nature  of  his  revelation,  shows  that  his  mode  of  dealing  with  men  is, 
to  place  before  them,  constantly,  that  which  must  exercise  all  their 
mental  and  moral  powers.  As  by  bodily  exercise  the  muscles  are 
developed  in  size  and  improved  in  strength  and  facility  of  motion,  so, 
in  the  order  of  God's  laws,  the  powers  of  the  soul  expand  with^  exercise 
and  attain  increasing  energy  and  activity.  You  diJfer  widely  in  your 
construction  of  God's  word,  because  you  vary  in  mind,  in  knowledge, 
in  judgment,  in  mental  habits,  and  because  there  are  varieties  also  in 
your  moral  constitution.  If  you  were  all  willing  to  bo  guided  implicitly 
by  me,  giving  up  your  conclusions  for  mine,  it  could  not  benefit  you, 
because  God  knows  your  real  opinions,  and,  in  His  view,  acquiescence 
is  not  faith,  and  sincerity  is  better  than  mere  profession.  According 
to  my  understanding  of  the  Scriptures,  some  of  you  have  seized  the 
whole  truth  and  have  found  the  way  of  life,  and  some  of  you  have 
found  a  Saviour,  who  have  not  perceived  the  whole  truth ;  some  of 
you  have  a  very  clear  view  of  the  letter  of  the  word  without  having 
attained,  perhaps,  to  the  spiritual  meaning,-  there  is  a  line,  seen  only 
by  the  eye  of  God,  between  those  of  you,  whether  wholly  right  or  not, 
who  believe  unto  salvation,  and  those  who  come  fatally  short.  No 
human  hand  can  trace  that  line.  I  beseech  you  all  to  strive  that 
you  may  not  at  last  come  short  of  a  saving  knowledge.  You  have 
merely  begun  the  study  of  the  Scriptures  ;  a  long  life  will  not  exhaust 
their  lessons  of  wisdom.  But  stop  not,  as  too  many  do,  in  their  mere 
learning  and  exposition,  study  rather  their  spiritual  meaning  and  their 
general  scope.     Let  every  step  you  make  in  the  knowledge  of  the 


a 


382  NOTES. 


Scriptures  be  exemplified  in  your  life.  I  have  not  tlie  least  doubt, 
that  the  highest  attainments  in  God's  "word  are  only  made  by  those 
who  exemplify  strictly  what  they  learn.  It  is  on]j  when  Christian 
experience  accompanies  Christian  wisdom  that  the  spiritual  under- 
standing is  opened.  To  such  only  is  it  given  to  understand  the  truths 
which  lie  hidden  from  those  who,  having  eyes,  see  not,  and  having  ears 
hear  not,  the  truths  of  the  gospel.  I  cannot  point  out  the  line  of  fatal 
error  which  i-uns  between  you,  but  I  can,  with  some  certainty,  by  your 
future  lives,  tell  who  is  travelling  heavenward.  I  shall  entertain 
strong  hopes  of  all  who  cling  to  this  book  as  their  rule  of  life,  even 
though  they  may,  in  my  estimation,  err  greatly  in  its  interpretation. 
To  those  who  are  alarmed  at  the  doctrine  of  eternal  decrees  and 
God's  foreknowledge,  let  me  say  there  is  nothing  more  difficult  in  that 
than  in  the  existence  of  such  a  world  as  this  with  such  people  in  it. 
If  we  cannot  reconcile  our  free  will  with  God's  decrees,  he  has  removed 
all  practical  difiiculty  out  of  our  way,  by  making  our  wills  free  and 
making  us  responsible  for  our  acts.  It  cannot  be  otherwise,  according 
to  the  clear  tenor  of  the  Scriptures,  than  that  we  are  free  to  choose 
between  eternal  life  and  death ;  and  it  cannot  be  otherwise  than  that 
God  foreknows  whatsoever  is  to  come  to  pass.  This  is  enough  for  us. 
But  there  remains  a  class  of  you  to  whom  I  must  say  a  word  : — You 
who  perceive  no  truth  in  the  Scriptures  and  do  not  regard  them  as  a 
message  from  God.  I  am  sorry,  most  sorry,  but  I  do  not  despair :  I 
have  known  many  entertaining  the  same  views  to  change  them.  Let 
me  exhort  you  to  keep  in  mind,  that  if  you  are  in  error,  it  is  a  fatal 
error,  one  which  entails  eternal  and  unavailing  repentance.  You 
should  be  very  sure  before  you  adopt  such  opinions.  I  shall  not 
cease  to  pray  for  you,  hope  for  you,  and  do  all  I  can  to  aid  you. 

"I  might  regard  you  all  as  the  representatives  of  the  various 
chui'ches  or  sects  to  whose  opinions  you  respectively  make  the  nearest 
approach  ;  and  you  who  put  no  faith  in  the  Bible,  I  might  range  with 
the  unbelievers  of  the  world.  But  I  prefer  to  have  all  look  at  the 
subject  from  a  different  point  of  view.  There  is  much  less  diversity  in 
what,  as  Christians,  we  have  to  do,  than  in  what  we  may  believe.  The 
mind  is  able  to  traverse  far  more  ground  than  the  body ;  a  greater 
arena  is  therefore  given  for  its  exercises.  I  wish  you  to  agree  in  what 
is  to  be  done  for  your  fellow-men  and  yourselves,  and  leave  you,  while 
in  harmony  of  action,  a  wide  divergency  of  belief.  I  ask  you  to  keep 
the  Bible  in  your  hands,  striving  to  realize  the  spirit  and  main  object 
of  its  instructions.     I  know  there  must  be  a  diversity  of  interpreta- 


NOTES.  383 


tion ;  but  whilst  you  are  unable  to  agree  in  many  points  of  doctrine, 
you  all  agree  that  your  chief  duties  are  to  love  God  and  be  a  brother 
and  a  helper  to  your  fellow-man  ;  on  this  broad  platform  you  may  all 
travel  heavenward  in  harmony,  making  your  differences  of  opinion  in 
other  matters  continual  occasion  for  the  exercise  of  charity  and  for- 
bearance ;  not  forgetting,  however,  that  the  great  use  of  these  differ- 
ences is  to  stimulate  and  strengthen  the  mind  to  increased  efforts  after 
truth.  While  we,  therefore,  sharpen  our  perceptions  and  quicken  our 
pursuit  of  the  truth,  let  all  undue  struggle  and  collision  be  moderated 
by  labours  of  love  and  mercy.  If  our  theology — our  divinity  be  not 
blended  with  humanity  it  cannot  be  genuine.  Our  Saviour  was  not 
only  the  Son  of  God;  he  was  also  the  Son  of  man. 

The  case  here  supposed,  has  occurred  in  part.  The  Bible  has  been 
scattered  broadcast  for  half  a  century ;  it  has  been  sent  forth  without 
paraphrase  or  explanations.  Its  truths  are  diffused  among  the  nations 
of  the  earth.  The  result  is  various,  and  may  be  readily  seen  by  close 
observers.  The  most  remarkable  is  that  which  is  seen  in  the  univer- 
sal movement  in  favour  of  human  well-being.  Never,  since  the  world 
began,  was  such  a  voice  raised  in  behalf  of  humanity.  It  is  daily 
growing  in  force  and  in  extent.  Can  any  one  imagine  any  fountain 
from  which  all  this  charity  could  have  flowed,  but  the  Gospels?  There 
is  no  human  source  which  could  have  furnished  the  opinions  which 
are  now  proclaimed,  or  excited  the  feelings  of  human  sympathy  now 
prevalent.  Let  us  then  welcome  back  the  bread  which  was  thrown 
upon  the  waters,  even  though  it  may  have  gathered  impurities  from 
exposure  and  improper  contact.  Let  us  hear  the  report  from  all  who 
come  with  the  Bible  in  their  hands,  and  let  us  treat  them  kindly,  aid 
them  when  we  can,  and,  if  need  be,  let  us  be  humble  enough  to  receive 
instruction  from  those  who  have  had  the  Bible  free  from  all  the  tram- 
mels of  prejudice,  eai-ly  education,  and  systematic  theology.  It  is 
possible  that  these  new  students  may  bring  up  truths,  or  applications 
of  truths,  which  have  escaped  those  who  preceded  them.  It  is  very 
certain  that  those  whose  minds  have  not  passed  through  the  theology 
of  the  Reformation,  almost  always  fasten  upon  the  life  and  instructions 
of  Christ  as  the  most  interesting  and  precious  portion  of  the  volume. 
These  have  passed  from  mouth  to  mouth,  and  are  now  throughout 
Europe  beginning  to  leaven  the  whole  mass  of  the  population,  and 
thence  the  general  cry  for  the  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  in- 
ferior classes. 

THE  END. 


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